Language Rights: Education – Indonesia & Ghana Aina Abd Rahman, Lauren Anokye, Chung Yee Joey Chan, Man Lok Cheng, Zhamayne Fakharuzi, Kwan Hon Liu LG 474 2016-17

Indonesia

Brief history Indonesia was under Dutch rule for almost 350 years. Driven by the search of national identity, the Congress introduced Bahasa Indonesia as the national unifying language. Consequences: Struggles between the national language with regional languages (including Hokkien, Hakka, TeoChew)

Linguistic Background Four kinds of languages: Regional languages  699 distinct languages spread over 3000 inhabited islands National language – Bahasa Indonesia  Unifying language  Medium of instruction in schools Variants of Indonesian  mixture of standard Indonesian and regional languages Foreign language  Dutch (before Independence), English, French, etc.

Anti-Chinese violence (1965 – 1967) Chinese were discriminated socially (separate neighbourhoods, restricted movement). Forced assimilation policy: Public use of Chinese names and characters were banned (shops, advertisement, posters). Chinese schools were closed. Chinese-language newspaper were all banned. Indonesian Chinese were forced to take Indonesian names.

Education system: Implementation of Bahasa Indonesia Local languages were considered as hindering government’s plan to unite the people. Under the new law, Bahasa Indonesia is the new medium of instruction in all schools from primary level. Following this, schools with language other than Bahasa Indonesia are not permitted to operate.

Education system: Forced assimilation policy on Chinese All government funded Chinese-language schools were converted to Indonesian-medium institution. After three years of banning Chinese schools, some privately owned schools were allowed to operate however under close government supervision. Principals and teachers must be proficient in Bahasa Indonesia. Tighter entry restriction for Chinese origin teachers into the country.

Consequences of banning Chinese education Those who do not speak Bahasa Indonesia, have limited opportunities for governmental positions. Decrease number of Chinese regional dialect speakers in Indonesia (Hakka, Teochew and Hokkien). Older generations shift to Bahasa Indonesia and the younger generation involuntarily loss their heritage language. Some scholars termed them as ‘loss generations’ (Setijadi, 2016).

Changes to the education system In 1999, forced assimilation policy was abolished. Chinese schools were allowed to operate, however no government funding was given for Chinese medium schools. Bahasa Indonesia remains as the medium of instruction in all schools, however government allow the the teaching of regional languages depending on provincial government ruling.

Suggestion Set up bilingual programs Establish ethnic schools (language and culture centre): Provide a minimum two hours of lessons each week.

Ghana

History Before formal education was introduced, education was conducted in indigenous languages, but considered inadequate. (1529-1925) Post colonial era- Formal education commenced as castle schools and Christian missionaries. The languages used were those of the home country. Portuguese, Dutch, Danish and English. The language situation changed depending on who was in power.

Linguistic Background 44 indigenous languages 9 approved for education & media broadcasting

Education system (1970s -2002) Main Ghanaian language as medium of instruction for year 1-3 In year 4-6 as well, if possible In case when English is the medium of instruction, choice of a Ghanaian language will be taught as a subject If most of the learners cannot master either of the language, and transferred to English for the rest of the schooling

Education system (2002 onward) English would be the medium of instruction for all level Multilingual classroom Pupils do not necessarily speak local language Lack of local language teachers and materials Lack of Linguistic nationalism Negative perception

Negative Perception Belief of English equals to empowerment and advancement Educational policy decisions remain centralised and reflect the will of postcolonial elite (limited communicative value) Dominant ex-colonial languages have economic and social currency

Consequence of new education system Lack of Learning Proficiency Language Anxiety Involuntary language loss Language Shock

Suggestion Late-exit transitional bilingual education L1 as medium of instruction until year 4 English is gradually introduced from Year 6 onward Standardization of one of the Ghanaian