7.1: Introduction Human skeleton is initially cartilages and fibrous membranes Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage By age 25 the skeleton is completely hardened 206 bones make up the adult skeleton (20% of body mass) 80 bones of the axial skeleton 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton

7.1: Introduction Bones are the organs of the skeletal system and are composed of many tissues, including bone tissue, cartilage, dense connective tissue, blood and nervous tissue. Bones functions include: Supporting and protecting softer tissues Providing points of attachment for muscles Housing blood-producing cells Storing inorganic salts

Bone Classification Bone Classification: Long Bones Short Bones Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Bone Classification: (b) Long Bones Short Bones Including Sesamoid bones Flat Bones Irregular Bones (c) (d) (a) (e)

7.2: Bone Structure Bones of the skeletal system vary greatly in size and shape There is similarity in structure, development, and function

Parts of a Long Bone Epiphysis Diaphysis Metaphysis Distal Proximal Diaphysis Metaphysis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Epiphyseal plates Articular cartilage Proximal epiphysis Spongy bone Metaphysis Space containing red marrow Endosteum Compact bone (cortical bone) Spongy bone (cancellous bone) Compact bone Medullary cavity Yellow marrow Articular cartilage Periosteum Endosteum Diaphysis Periosteum Medullary cavity Trabeculae Bone marrow Red marrow and yellow marrow Metaphysis Distal epiphysis

Microscopic Structure Mature bone cells are called osteocytes Osteocytes transport nutrients and wastes The extracellular matrix of bone is largely collagen and inorganic salts Collagen gives bone resilience Inorganic salts make bone hard

Compact Bone Osteon Haversian System Central canal Perforating canal Volkmann’s canal Osteocytes Lamellae Lacunae Bone matrix Canaliculi Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Osteon Compact bone Central canal containing blood vessels and nerves Endosteum Spongy bone Periosteum Nerve Blood vessels Pores Central canal Perforating canal Compact bone Nerve Blood vessels Nerve Trabeculae Bone matrix Canaliculus Osteocyte Lacuna (space)

Spongy Bone Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Spongy bone extracellular matrix is laid down in trabeculae . Osteocytes reside in lacunae within the trabeculae. Canaliculi Spongy bone Compact bone (a) Remnant of epiphyseal plate Spongy bone Compact bone (b) (c) Spongy bone Compact bone a: © Ed Reschke; b: Courtesy of John W. Hole, Jr.; c: Courtesy of John W. Hole, Jr.

7.3: Bone Development and Growth Parts of the skeletal system begin to develop during the first few weeks of prenatal development Bones form when bone tissue replaces existing connective tissue in one of two ways: As intramembranous bones As endochondral bones

Intramembranous Bones Intramembranous Ossification These bones originate within sheetlike layers of connective tissues They are the broad, flat bones Flat bones of the skull, clavicles, sternum, and some facial bones Osteoblasts are bone forming cells

Endochondral Bones Endochondral Ossification Bones begin as hyaline cartilage Form models for future bones These are most bones of the skeleton

Endochondral Ossification Hyaline cartilage model Primary ossification center Secondary ossification centers Epiphyseal plate Osteoblasts vs. osteoclasts Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Articular cartilage Remnants of epiphyseal plates Secondary ossification center Cartilaginous model Developing periosteum Compact bone developing Spongy bone Epiphyseal plates Blood vessel Medullary cavity Medullary cavity Medullary cavity Compact bone Remnant of epiphyseal plate Epiphyseal plate Calcified cartilage Primary ossification center Secondary ossification center Spongy bone Articular cartilage (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Growth at the Epiphyseal Plate Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Zone of resting cartilage (1st layer of cells) Closest to the end of epiphysis Resting cells Anchors epiphyseal plate to epiphysis Bone tissue of epiphysis 1 Zone of resting cartilage 2 Zone of proliferating cartilage 3 Zone of hypertrophic cartilage 4 Zone of calcified cartilage Zone of proliferating cartilage (2nd layer of cells) Many rows of young cells Undergoing mitosis Ossified bone of diaphysis (a) (b) b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer 13

Growth at the Epiphyseal Plate Zone of hypertrophic cartilage (3rd layer of cells) Older cells Left behind when new cells appear Cells enlarging and becoming calcified Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Bone tissue of epiphysis 1 Zone of resting cartilage 2 Zone of proliferating cartilage 3 Zone of hypertrophic cartilage 4 Zone of calcified cartilage Zone of calcified cartilage (4th layer of cells) Thin Dead cells Calcified extracellular matrix Ossified bone of diaphysis (a) (b) b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer 14

Homeostasis of Bone Tissue Bone remodeling occurs throughout life Bone Resorption – action of osteoclasts Bone Deposition – action of osteoblasts 10% - 20% of skeleton is replaced each year Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Developing medullary cavity Osteoclast © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Factors Affecting Bone Development, Growth and Repair Deficiency of Vitamin A – retards bone development Deficiency of Vitamin C – results in fragile bones Deficiency of Vitamin D – rickets, osteomalacia Insufficient Growth Hormone – dwarfism Excessive Growth Hormone – gigantism, acromegaly Insufficient Thyroid Hormone – delays bone growth Sex Hormones – promote bone formation; stimulate ossification of epiphyseal plates Physical Stress – stimulates bone growth

7.1 Clinical Application Fractures

7.4: Bone Function Bones shape, support, and protect body structures

Support, Protection, and Movement Support, Movement & Protection Gives shape to head, etc. Supports body’s weight Protects lungs, etc. Bones and muscles interact when limbs or body parts move

Blood Cell Formation Blood Cell Formation Also known as hematopoiesis Occurs in the red bone marrow

Inorganic Salt Storage Most abundant salt is Calcium Phosphate Other salts include Magnesium ions Sodium ions Potassium ions Carbonate ions Osteoporosis is a condition that results from loss of bone mineral

7.5: Skeletal Organization The actual number of bones in the human skeleton varies from person to person Typically there are about 206 bones

Divisions of the Skeleton Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Axial Skeleton Skull Hyoid bone Thoracic cage Cranium Skull Face Hyoid Clavicle Scapula Sternum Humerus Ribs Vertebral column Vertebral column Appendicular Skeleton Pectoral girdle Upper limbs Pelvic girdle Lower limbs Hip bone Carpals Radius Sacrum Ulna Coccyx Metacarpals Femur Phalanges Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges (a) (b)

7.6: Skull Is composed of the cranium and the facial bones

Cranium Frontal Bone (1) Forehead Roof of nasal cavity Roofs of orbits Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Frontal Bone (1) Forehead Roof of nasal cavity Roofs of orbits Frontal sinuses Supraorbital foramen Parietal bone Frontal bone Coronal suture Lacrimal bone Ethmoid bone Squamous suture Supraorbital foramen Sphenoid bone T emporal bone Nasal bone Sphenoid bone Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone Middle nasal concha of the ethmoid bone Infraorbital foramen Zygomatic bone Inferior nasal concha V omer bone Maxilla Mandible Mental foramen

Cranium Parietal Bones (2) Side walls of cranium Roof of cranium Sagittal suture Coronal suture Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Coronal suture Parietal bone Frontal bone Squamous suture Sphenoid bone Lambdoid suture Ethmoid bone Occipital bone Lacrimal bone Nasal bone Temporal bone Zygomatic bone External acoustic meatus Temporal process of zygomatic bone Mastoid process Maxilla Mandibular condyle Styloid process Mental foramen Zygomatic process of temporal bone Mandible Coronoid process

Cranium Occipital Bone (1) Back of skull Base of cranium Foramen magnum Occipital condyles Lambdoidal suture Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Incisive foramen Palatine process of maxilla Zygomatic bone Median palatine suture Frontal bone Palatine bone Sphenoid bone Zygomatic arch Greater palatine foramen Vomer bone Foramen lacerum Mandibular fossa Foramen ovale Styloid process Foramen spinosum External acoustic meatus Carotid canal Jugular foramen Stylomastoid foramen Occipital condyle Foramen magnum Mastoid foramen Lambdoid suture Temporal bone Condylar canal Occipital bone

Cranium Temporal Bones (2) Side walls of cranium Floor of cranium Floors and sides of orbits Squamous suture External acoustic meatus Mandibular fossa Mastoid process Styloid process Zygomatic process Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Coronal suture Parietal bone Frontal bone Squamous suture Sphenoid bone Lambdoid suture Ethmoid bone Occipital bone Lacrimal bone Nasal bone Temporal bone Zygomatic bone External acoustic meatus Temporal process of zygomatic bone Mastoid process Maxilla Mandibular condyle Styloid process Mental foramen Zygomatic process of temporal bone Mandible Coronoid process

Cranium Sphenoid Bone (1) Base of cranium Sides of skull Floors and sides of orbits Sella turcica Sphenoid sinuses Lesser wing Optic canal Greater wing Foramen rotundum Foramen spinosum (a) Sella turcica Foramen ovale Transverse section Lesser wing Greater wing Superior orbital fissure Foramen rotundum Lateral pterygoid plate (b) Medial pterygoid plate

Cranium Ethmoid Bone (1) Roof and walls of nasal cavity Floor of cranium Wall of orbits Cribiform plates Perpendicular plate Superior and middle nasal conchae Ethmoid sinuses Crista galli Perpendicular plate Crista galli Crista galli Superior nasal concha Cribriform plate Ethmoidal sinuses Middle nasal concha Transverse section Orbital surface Perpendicular plate (a) (b)

Facial Skeleton Maxillae Bones (2) Upper jaw Anterior roof of mouth Floors of orbits Sides of nasal cavity Floors of nasal cavity Alveolar processes Maxillary sinuses Palatine process Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Coronal suture Parietal bone Frontal bone Squamous suture Sphenoid bone Lambdoid suture Ethmoid bone Occipital bone Lacrimal bone Nasal bone Temporal bone Zygomatic bone External acoustic meatus Temporal process of zygoma Mastoid process Maxilla Mandibular condyle Styloid process Mental foramen Zygomatic process of temporal bone Mandible Coronoid process

Facial Skeleton Frontal sinus Ethmoidal sinuses Sphenoidal sinus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Frontal sinus Ethmoidal sinuses Sphenoidal sinus Maxillary sinus

Facial Skeleton Palatine Bones (2) ‘L’ shaped bones located behind the maxillae Posterior section of hard palate Floor of nasal cavity Lateral walls of nasal cavity Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Perpendicular portion Coronal section Horizontal portion

Facial Skeleton Zygomatic Bones (2) Prominences of cheeks Lateral walls of orbits Floors of orbits Temporal process Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Coronal suture Parietal bone Frontal bone Squamous suture Sphenoid bone Lambdoid suture Ethmoid bone Occipital bone Lacrimal bone Nasal bone Temporal bone Zygomatic bone External acoustic meatus Temporal process of zygoma Mastoid process Maxilla Mandibular condyle Styloid process Mental foramen Zygomatic process of temporal bone Mandible Coronoid process

Facial Skeleton Lacrimal Bones (2) Nasal Bones (2) Medial walls of orbits Groove from orbit to nasal cavity Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Coronal suture Parietal bone Frontal bone Squamous suture Sphenoid bone Nasal Bones (2) Bridge of nose Lambdoid suture Ethmoid bone Occipital bone Lacrimal bone Nasal bone Temporal bone Zygomatic bone External acoustic meatus Temporal process of zygoma Mastoid process Maxilla Mandibular condyle Styloid process Mental foramen Zygomatic process of temporal bone Mandible Coronoid process

Facial Skeleton Vomer Bone (1) Inferior Nasal Conchae (2) Inferior portion of nasal septum Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Coronal suture Temporal bone Frontal bone Parietal bone Squamous suture Sphenoid bone Frontal sinus Lambdoid suture Inferior Nasal Conchae (2) Extend from lateral walls of nasal cavity Nasal bone Occipital bone Crista galli Internal acoustic meatus Cribriform plate Ethmoid bone Perpendicular plate (nasal septum) Jugular foramen Sella turcica Inferior nasal concha Palatine process of maxilla Hypoglossal canal Styloid process Foramen magnum Maxilla Sphenoidal sinus Mastoid process Palatine bone Vomer bone Mandible Alveolar processes

Facial Skeleton Mandible Bone (1) Lower jawbone Body Ramus Mandibular condyle Coronoid process Alveolar process Mandibular foramen Mental foramen Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Coronoid process Coronoid process Mandibular foramen Mandibular condyle Body Ramus Alveolar process Mandibular foramen Body Mental foramen Alveolar arch (a) (b)

Infantile Skull Fontanels – fibrous membranes (soft spots) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Anterior fontanel Coronal suture Frontal bone Parietal bone Nasal bone Posterior fontanel Occipital bone Zygomatic bone Maxilla Mastoid fontanel (posterolateral fontanel) Sphenoid bone Mandible Temporal bone Sphenoidal fontanel (anterolateral fontanel) (a) Frontal suture (metopic suture) Frontal bone Anterior fontanel Sagittal suture Posterior fontanel (b)

7.7: Vertebral Column The vertebral column consists of many vertebrae separated by cartilaginous intervertebral discs. Vertebral canal

Vertebral Column Cervical vertebrae (7) Thoracic vertebrae (12) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cervical vertebrae (7) Thoracic vertebrae (12) Lumbar vertebrae (5) Sacral (4-5 fused segments) Sacrum is fused bone Coccygeal (3-4 fused segments) Coccyx is fused bone Cervical curvature Cervical vertebrae Vertebra prominens Rib facet Thoracic curvature Thoracic vertebrae Intervertebral Intervertebral foramina Lumbar vertebrae Lumbar curvature Sacrum Sacral curvature Coccyx (a) (b)

Vertebral Column Cervical curvature Thoracic curvature Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cervical curvature Thoracic curvature Lumbar curvature Sacral curvature Cervical curvature Cervical vertebrae Vertebra prominens Rib facet Thoracic curvature Thoracic vertebrae Intervertebral Intervertebral foramina Lumbar vertebrae Lumbar curvature Sacrum Sacral curvature Coccyx (a) (b)

Typical Vertebrae Includes the following parts: Body Pedicles Lamina Spinous process Transverse processes Vertebral foramen Facets Superior and inferior articular processes

Cervical Vertebrae Atlas – 1st; supports head Axis – 2nd; Atlas pivots around dens Transverse foramina Bifid spinous processes (on C2-C6) Vertebral prominens (on C7)– useful landmark Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Facet that articulates with occipital condyle Posterior Vertebral foramen Transverse process Facet that articulates with dens (odontoid process) of axis Transverse foramen Anterior Atlas (a) Anterior articular facet for atlas Spinous process Dens Spinous process Superior articular facet Transverse foramen Body Inferior articular process Transverse process Dens (odontoid process) Axis (b) (c)

Thoracic Vertebrae Superior articular process Pedicle Transverse Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Superior articular process Pedicle Transverse process Facet for tubercle of rib Body Inferior vertebral notch Superior articular facet Body Inferior articular facet Spinous process Transverse process (a) Inferior articular process Spinous process Lamina Intervertebral disc Transverse process Facet for tubercle of rib Superior articular facet Vertebral foramen Spinous process Anterior Pedicle Body (b) Posterior (c)

Lumbar Vertebrae Large bodies Thick, short spinous processes Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Spinous process Lamina Superior articular process Transverse process Pedicle Vertebral foramen Body (c) Lumbar vertebra

Sacrum 4-5 fused segments Median sacral crest Posterior sacral foramina Posterior wall of pelvic cavity Sacral promontory - base Area toward coccyx is the apex Sacral canal Sacral hiatus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sacral promontory Superior articular process Sacral canal Auricular surface Sacrum Tubercle of median sacral crest Posterior sacral foramen Sacral hiatus Anterior sacral foramen Coccyx (a) (b)

Coccyx Tailbone 3-5 fused segments Sacral promontory Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sacral promontory Superior articular process Sacral canal Auricular surface Sacrum Tubercle of median sacral crest Posterior sacral foramen Sacral hiatus Anterior sacral foramen Coccyx (a) (b)

Disorders of the Vertebral Column 7.2 Clinical Application Disorders of the Vertebral Column

7.8: Thoracic Cage The thoracic cage includes the ribs, the thoracic vertebrae, the sternum, and the costal cartilages that attach the ribs to the sternum. Supports shoulder girdle and upper limbs Protects viscera Role in breathing

b: © Thinkstock/Jupiterimages RF Ribs Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Jugular notch (suprasternal notch) Humans have 12 pairs of ribs: True ribs (7) False ribs (5), of which: Floating (2) Sternal angle Thoracic vertebra 1 Clavicular notch 2 3 Manubrium True ribs (vertebrosternal ribs) 4 5 Body Sternum 6 7 Xiphoid process 8 Ribs Vertebrochondral ribs 9 False ribs Costal cartilage There are some anomalies: Cervical ribs Lumbar ribs 10 11 Floating ribs (vertebral ribs) 12 (a) (b) b: © Thinkstock/Jupiterimages RF

Rib Structure Shaft Head – posterior end; articulates with vertebrae Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Shaft Head – posterior end; articulates with vertebrae Tubercle – articulates with vertebrae Costal cartilage – hyaline cartilage Neck Head Tubercle Anterior end Shaft Costal groove (a) Spinous process Facet Tubercle Neck Head Facet Shaft Anterior end (sternal end) (b)

b: © Thinkstock/Jupiterimages RF Sternum Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Three (3) parts of the sternum: Manubrium Body Xiphoid process Jugular notch (suprasternal notch) Sternal angle Thoracic vertebra 1 Clavicular notch 2 3 Manubrium True ribs (vertebrosternal ribs) 4 5 Body Sternum 6 7 Xiphoid process 8 Ribs Vertebrochondral ribs 9 False ribs Costal cartilage 10 11 Floating ribs (vertebral ribs) 12 (a) (b) b: © Thinkstock/Jupiterimages RF

7.9: Pectoral Girdle Also known as the shoulder girdle Clavicles Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Also known as the shoulder girdle Clavicles Scapulae Supports upper limbs Acromion process Acromial end Sternal end Clavicle Head of humerus Coracoid process Sternum Costal cartilage Scapula Rib Humerus Ulna Radius (a)

Clavicles S-shaped Articulate with manubrium Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. S-shaped Articulate with manubrium Articulate with scapulae (acromion process) Acromion process Acromial end Sternal end Clavicle Head of humerus Coracoid process Sternum Costal cartilage Scapula Rib Humerus Ulna Radius (a)

Scapulae Spine Supraspinous fossa Infraspinous fossa Acromion process Coracoid process Glenoid fossa or cavity Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Superior border Coracoid process Suprascapular notch Acromion process Acromion process Coracoid process Supra- glenoid tubercle Spine Glenoid cavity Glenoid cavity Subscapular fossa Infra- glenoid tubercle Supraspinous fossa Lateral (axillary) border Infraspinous fossa Medial (vertebral) border (a) (b) (c)

7.10: Upper Limb Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Humerus Humerus Olecranon process Olecranon fossa Head of radius Ulna Neck of radius (c) Radius Ulna Ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges (a) Hand (palm anterior) (b) Hand (palm posterior) (d) © Martin Rotker

Humerus Head Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle Anatomical neck Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Head Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle Anatomical neck Surgical neck Deltoid tuberosity Capitulum Trochlea Coronoid fossa Olecranon fossa Greater tubercle Head Greater tubercle Anatomical neck Intertubercular groove Surgical neck Lesser tubercle Deltoid tuberosity Coronoid fossa Olecranon fossa Lateral epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle Capitulum Trochlea (a) (b)

Radius Lateral forearm bone Head Radial tuberosity Styloid process Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Lateral forearm bone Head Radial tuberosity Styloid process Trochlear notch Olecranon process Coronoid process Head of radius Olecranon process Radial tuberosity Trochlear notch Coronoid process Radial notch Radius (b) Ulna Head of ulna Styloid process Styloid process Ulnar notch of radius (a)

Ulna Medial forearm bone Trochlear notch Olecranon process Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Medial forearm bone Trochlear notch Olecranon process Coronoid process Styloid process Trochlear notch Olecranon process Coronoid process Head of radius Olecranon process Radial tuberosity Trochlear notch Coronoid process Radial notch Radius (b) Ulna Head of ulna Styloid process Styloid process Ulnar notch of radius (a)

Hand Each hand is made of wrist, palm, and fingers Carpal Bones (8 bones) Scaphoid Lunate Triquetral Pisiform Hamate Capitate Trapezoid Trapezium Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Radius Scaphoid Ulna Scaphoid Lunate Capitate Capitate Hamate Trapezoid Trapezoid Triquetrum Trapezium Trapezium Pisiform Carpals (carpus) 1 1 Metacarpals (metacarpus) 5 5 2 4 4 2 3 3 Metacarpal Bones (5) Proximal phalanx Middle phalanx Phalangeal Bones (14) Proximal phalanx Middle phalanx Distal phalanx Phalanges Distal phalanx (a) (b)

7.11: Pelvic Girdle Coxal Bones (2) – hip bones Supports trunk of body Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Coxal Bones (2) – hip bones Supports trunk of body Protects viscera Forms pelvic cavity Provides attachment for lower limbs Sacral canal Ilium Sacrum Sacral hiatus Coccyx Ischium Obturator foramen Pubis (b) Sacroiliac joint Ilium Sacral promontory Sacrum Acetabulum Pubis Pubic tubercle Pubic symphysis Ischium Pubic arch (a) c: © Martin Rotker (c)

Hip Bones Also known as the coxal bones Acetabulum Obturator foramen There are three bones: 1. Ilium Iliac crest Iliac spines Greater sciatic notch 2. Ischium Ischial spines Lesser sciatic notch Ischial tuberosity 3. Pubis Pubic symphysis Pubic arch Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Iliac crest Iliac fossa Iliac crest Anterior superior iliac spine Posterior superior iliac spine Ilium Ilium Anterior inferior iliac spine Posterior inferior iliac spine Obturator foramen Greater sciatic notch Acetabulum Obturator foramen Ischium Ischial spine Pubis Pubic crest Ischium Lesser sciatic notch Pubis Pubic tubercle Ischial tuberosity (a) (b)

True and False Pelves Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. True Pelvis is below pelvic brim and false pelvis is above pelvic brim Flared ilium Sacral promontory False Pelvis Lumbar vertebrae posteriorly Iliac bones laterally Abdominal wall anteriorly Pelvic brim Pubic symphysis (a) Pubic arch True Pelvis Sacrum and coccyx posteriorly Lower ilium, ischium, and pubic bones laterally and anteriorly Sacral promontory (b) Pubic arch

Differences Between Male Female Pelves Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Female pelvis Iliac bones more flared Broader hips Pubic arch angle greater More distance between ischial spines and ischial tuberosities Sacral curvature shorter and flatter Lighter bones Flared ilium Sacral promontory Pelvic brim Pubic symphysis (a) Pubic arch Sacral promontory (b) Pubic arch

7.12: Lower Limb Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges Femur Femur Patella Fibula T ibia (c) Lateral view Patella Fibula Femur Tibia Lateral condyle Medial condyle Fibula T ibia T arsals (d) Posterior view Metatarsals Phalanges (b)

Femur Longest bone of body Head Fovea capitis Neck Greater trochanter Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Longest bone of body Head Fovea capitis Neck Greater trochanter Lesser trochanter Linea aspera Condyles Epicondyles Fovea capitis Neck Head Greater trochanter Gluteal tuberosity Lesser trochanter Linea aspera Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle Medial condyle Lateral condyle Intercondylar fossa Patellar surface (a) (b)

Patella Kneecap Anterior surface of the knee joint Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Kneecap Anterior surface of the knee joint Flat sesamoid bone located in the quadriceps tendon Femur Femur Patella Fibula T ibia (c) Lateral view Patella Fibula Femur Tibia Lateral condyle Medial condyle Fibula T ibia T arsals (d) Posterior view Metatarsals Phalanges (b)

Tibia Shin bone Medial to fibula Condyles Tibial tuberosity Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Intercondylar eminence Shin bone Medial to fibula Condyles Tibial tuberosity Anterior crest Medial malleolus Lateral condyle Medial condyle Tibial tuberosity Head of fibula Anterior crest Fibula Tibia Medial malleolus Lateral malleolus

Fibula Lateral to tibia Long, slender Head Makes the lateral malleolus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Intercondylar eminence Lateral to tibia Long, slender Head Makes the lateral malleolus Non-weight bearing Lateral condyle Medial condyle Tibial tuberosity Head of fibula Anterior crest Fibula Tibia Medial malleolus Lateral malleolus

Foot Tarsal Bones (7 per foot) Metatarsal Bones (5 per foot) Calcaneus Talus Navicular Cuboid Lateral cuneiform Intermediate cuneiform Medial cuneiform Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fibula Tibia T alus Medial cuneiform Navicular Metatarsals (metatarsus) Calcaneus Metatarsal Bones (5 per foot) Phalanges Calcaneal tuberosity Phalanges (14 per foot) Proximal Middle Distal Tarsals (tarsus) (b)

Foot Calcaneus Talus Tarsals (tarsus) Navicular Cuboid Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Calcaneus Talus Tarsals (tarsus) Navicular Cuboid Lateral cuneiform Intermediate cuneiform Medial cuneiform 5 4 3 1 Metatarsals (metatarsus) 2 Proximal phalanx Middle phalanx Distal phalanx Phalanges (a)

7.13: Lifespan Changes Decrease in height at about age 30 Calcium levels fall Bones become brittle Osteoclasts outnumber osteoblasts Spongy bone weakens before compact bone Bone loss rapid in menopausal women Hip fractures common Vertebral compression fractures common