1 Introduction to Psychology

Learning Objectives 1.1 How will the SQ3R method help you master psychology? 1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientific method? 1.3 What are the goals of psychology? 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field? 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology? 1.6 What are the seven contemporary psychological perspectives? 2

Learning Objectives 1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology? 1.8 How do psychologists evaluate theories? 1.9 How will critical thinking help you evaluate research? 1.10 What are the pros and cons of observational and case studies? 1.11 How do researchers design useful surveys? 1.12 What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method? 1.13 How do researchers use experiments to test causal hypotheses? 3

Learning Objectives 1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental method? 1.15 How can participants’ characteristics influence a study’s usefulness? 1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights? 4

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Overview Introduction to Mastering the World of Psychology Psychology Then and Now Thinking about Theories and Research Descriptive Research Methods The Experimental Method Research Participants Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 5

Studying Psychology: Some Tricks of the Trade Maximize learning with the 5 steps of the SQ3R method. Survey Question Read Recite Review I/Review II 1.1 How will the SQ3R method help you master psychology?

More Tips for Effective Studying LO 1.1 Establish a quiet place, free of distractions, where you do nothing but study. Schedule your study time. Set specific goals each week. Take an active role in the learning process. Sleeping immediately after you study will help you retain more of what you have learned. Learning Objective: 1.1 How will the SQ3R method help you master psychology?

Is Psychology a Science? Psychology is a science. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes Uses the scientific method to acquire knowledge Scientific method: orderly, systematic procedures researchers follow 1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientific method?

Steps of the Scientific Method LO 1.2 Observe and theorize. Formulate a hypothesis. Specific prediction that can be tested empirically with data Design the study. Collect data. Apply results to the hypothesis. Replication of the study is important. 1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientific method?

Is Psychology a Science? Theory A general principle or set of principles proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related. Hypothesis A testable prediction about the conditions under which a particular behavior or mental process may occur. 1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientific method? 10

LO 1.2 Figure 1.1 The Scientific Method These are the steps involved in the scientific method.

Summarize it: The Goals of Psychology 12

The Goals of Psychology Description Identifying and classifying behaviors and mental processes as accurately as possible Explanation Proposing reasons for behaviors and mental processes 1.3 What are the goals of psychology?

The Goals of Psychology Prediction Offering predictions (or hypotheses) about how a given condition or set of conditions will affect behaviors and mental processes Influence Using the results of research to solve practical problems that involve behavior and mental processes 1.3 What are the goals of psychology? 14

The Goals of Psychology Basic Research Seeks new knowledge Advances general scientific understanding Applied Research Solves practical problems Improves the quality of life 1.3 What are the goals of psychology? 15

Exploring Psychology’s Roots Psychology’s roots can be traced to the beginning of recorded history. Psychology began as a formal academic discipline in the 1800s. 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

Exploring Psychology’s Roots Wilhelm Wundt Considered the “father” of psychology Studied cultural and social influences on human thought Established the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany, 1879 Developed introspection Analysis of basic elements of conscious mental experience 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

Exploring Psychology’s Roots Titchener Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927) Studied under Wundt Established a psychological laboratory at Cornell University Named his school of thought “structuralism” 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

Exploring Psychology’s Roots Titchener Structuralism Aimed at analyzing the basic elements, or structure, of conscious mental experience Criticized for its primary method, introspection considered not objective Established psychology as a science 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field? 19

Exploring Psychology’s Roots Functionalism how humans and animals use mental processes to adapt to their environment William James (1842–1910) main advocate of functionalism clarified definition of mental processes fluid have continuity not the rigid, fixed structures suggested by the Structuralists 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

Exploring Psychology’s Roots Functionalism Broadened the scope of psychology study of behavior as well as mental processes Allowed for the study of children, animals, and the mentally impaired 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

Exploring Psychology’s Roots Functionalism Focused on more practical uses of psychology encouraged study of educational practices, individual differences, and adaptation in the workplace 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

The Changing Face of Psychology Current Trends More women than men obtain degrees in psychology. Minority representation is growing. A gap between the proportion of minorities in the US population and the proportion represented in professional psychology persists. 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

The Changing Face of Psychology Current Trends Minority representation is growing. The APA has established a program encouraging minority enrollment in graduate programs in psychology. 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

The Changing Face of Psychology Christine Ladd-Franklin Completed her PhD in the mid-1880s at Johns Hopkins Did not receive her degree until 1926 Formulated a theory of color vision 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

The Changing Face of Psychology Mary Whiton Calkins Completed the requirements for a doctorate at Harvard denied degree due to being female Established psychology laboratory at Wellesley College Developed paired associates test 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

The Changing Face of Psychology Margaret Floy Washburn Received PhD from Cornell University Wrote influential books The Animal Mind (1908) Movement and Mental Imagery (1916) 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

The Changing Face of Psychology Francis Cecil Sumner First African American to earn a PhD in psychology, 1920 Chaired psychology department at Howard University 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

The Changing Face of Psychology Albert Sidney Beckham established the first psychological laboratory at a black institution of higher learning, Howard University conducted important studies on intelligence and how it related to occupational fields 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

The Changing Face of Psychology Kenneth Clark received national recognition for writings on the harmful effects of racial segregation His writing impacted the Supreme Court rulings that declared national segregation unconstitutional. 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

The Changing Face of Psychology Jorge Sanchez Hispanic-American psychologist Studied bias in intelligence testing during the 1930s Cultural and language differences affect the performance of Hispanic students taking American IQ tests. 1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?

Schools of Thought in Psychology Behaviorism Psychoanalytic Psychology Humanistic Psychology Positive Psychology Cognitive Psychology Evolutionary Psychology Biological (Physiological) Psychology The Sociocultural Approach 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Behaviorism Named by John Watson Redefined psychology as “the science of behavior” Observable, measurable behavior is the only appropriate subject matter. Environment is the key determinant of behavior. Most influential school of thought until the 1960s 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Behaviorism Skinner’s Key Points Mind, consciousness, and feelings are neither objective nor measurable. not appropriate subject matter for psychology 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Behaviorism Skinner’s Key Points operant conditioning emphasizes the importance of reinforcement in learning, shaping, and maintaining behavior Behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated. 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Psychoanalysis Personality theory developed by Sigmund Freud Psychoanalysis treatment method for psychological disorders Psychoanalytic Theory individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior as determined primarily by the unconscious 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Psychoanalysis Freud’s Followers Jung, Adler, and Horney Disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on sexual and aggressive impulses referred to as “neoanalysts” 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Humanistic Psychology Humans have the capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health. Positive View of Human Nature People are innately good. Humans possess free will. 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Humanistic Psychology Key Contributors: Abraham Maslow Theory of motivation Emphasizes hierarchy of needs Carl Rogers Client-centered therapy Client directs a discussion on his or her own view of the problem. The therapist’s analysis is less the focus of therapy. 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Positive Psychology Martin Seligman Positive psychology The scientific study of psychological characteristics that enable individuals and communities to thrive in the face of adversity. 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Cognitive Psychology Grew in response to strict behaviorism Saw humans as: Not passive recipients pushed and pulled by environmental forces Active participants who seek out experiences, who alter and shape their experiences Using mental processes to transform information in the course of their own cognitive development 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Cognitive Psychology Ideas grew from gestalt psychology and information-processing theory. Gestalt Psychology The mind interprets events rather than simply reacting to them. Information-Processing Theory The brain processes information in sequential steps Similar to a computer’s serial processing 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology Investigates: Human behaviors necessary for survival How behaviors adapted in the face of environmental pressures over the course of evolution Draws heavily on Darwin’s theory 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Biological (Physiological) Psychology Often confused with evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology focuses on universal traits Biological psychology focuses on individual differences 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Schools of Thought in Psychology: Biological (Physiological) Psychology Studies structures of the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, effects of heredity Biological psychologists often work in neuroscience Neuroscience includes biology, biochemistry, and medicine in understanding functions of the nervous system 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology? 45

Schools of Thought in Psychology: The Sociocultural Approach How background and cultural experiences affect behavior and mental processes Important to understand these factors when interpreting the behavior of others Often studied within the broader context of a systems perspective 1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?

Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Many psychologists take an eclectic position Combination of approaches to explain a particular behavior Adopting multiple perspectives allows psychologists to: Devise more complex theories and studies Improve treatment strategies 1.6 What are the seven contemporary psychological perspectives?

Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Behavioral perspective Environmental factors Psychoanalytic perspective Emotions, unconscious motivations, early childhood experiences Humanistic perspective Subjective experiences, intrinsic motivation to achieve self-actualization 1.6 What are the seven contemporary psychological perspectives? Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 48

Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Cognitive perspective Mental processes Evolutionary perspective Inherited traits that enhance adaptability Biological perspective Biological structures, processes, heredity 1.6 What are the seven contemporary psychological perspectives? Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 49

Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Sociocultural perspective Social and cultural variables 1.6 What are the seven contemporary psychological perspectives? Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 50

Summarize It: Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology

Specialties in Psychology Clinical Psychologists Diagnose and treat mental and behavioral disorders School Psychologists Diagnose and treat learning and behavioral problems interfering with learning 1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology?

Specialties in Psychology Forensic Psychologists Work with issues involving psychology and law Counseling Psychologists Work with adjustment problem that are generally less severe than those handled by clinical psychologists 1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology?

Specialties in Psychology Physiological Psychologists Study the relationship between physiological processes and behavior Experimental Psychologists Conduct research in memory, sensation, perception, motivation, and emotion 1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology?

Specialties in Psychology Developmental Psychologists Study change throughout the life span Educational Psychologists Specialize in the study of teaching and learning 1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology?

Specialties in Psychology Social Psychologists Investigate individual feelings, thoughts, and behavior in a social setting—in the presence of others Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologists Study the relationships between people and their work environments 1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology?

Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Theories LO 1.8 Theories help psychologists achieve the goal of prediction. Generate testable hypotheses Theories lead to the development of solutions for real-world problems. Theories possesses heuristic value. Make people think Spur curiosity and creativity 1.8 How do psychologists evaluate theories?

Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Research LO 1.9 What Critical Thinking Accomplishes Objectively evaluates claims, propositions, and conclusions Determines whether they follow logically from the evidence presented 1.9 How will critical thinking help you evaluate research?

Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Research LO 1.9 Characteristics of Critical Thought Independent thinking Not automatically accepting and believing what we read or hear Suspension of judgment Gathering relevant and up-to-date information on all sides of an issue before taking a position 1.9 How will critical thinking help you evaluate research?

Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Research LO 1.9 Characteristics of Critical Thought Willingness to modify or abandon prior judgments Evaluating new evidence, even when it contradicts preexisting beliefs 1.9 How will critical thinking help you evaluate research?

Descriptive Research Methods LO 1.10 These methods yield descriptions of behavior and include: Naturalistic and laboratory observation Case study Survey research Correlational method 1.10 What are the pros and cons of observational and case studies?

Descriptive Research Methods LO 1.10 Naturalistic Observation Observation of behavior in its natural setting No attempt to influence behavior Laboratory Observation Studies behavior in a laboratory setting Allows more control and more precise measurement of responses 1.10 What are the pros and cons of observational and case studies?

Descriptive Research Methods: Case Study LO 1.10 Studies a single individual or small number of persons in depth Advantages Appropriate for studying rare psychological disorders or brain damage Disadvantages Cannot identify the cause of behavior Potential for bias Results can lack generalizability 1.10 What are the pros and cons of observational and case studies?

Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys LO 1.11 Interviews and/or questionnaires Gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a group of people Population The entire group of interest to researchers to which they wish to generalize their findings; the group from which a sample is selected. 1.11 How do researchers design useful surveys? 64

Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys LO 1.11 Interviews and/or questionnaires Sample A part of a population that is studied to reach conclusions about the entire population. Studies a representative sample A sample that mirrors the population of interest; it includes important subgroups in the same proportions as they are found in that population. 1.11 How do researchers design useful surveys? 65

Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation Measures degree of a relationship between two characteristics, events, or behaviors Correlation Coefficient A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables; ranges from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to −1.00 (a perfect negative correlation). What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method?

Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation Three types: Negative correlation Positive correlation No correlation What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method? Figure 1.2 Positive and Negative Correlations Here are two graphs showing positive and negative correlations. (a) When positively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points fall along a line that rises from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent studying and grades on an exam. As study time goes up, exam grades go up as well. (b) When negatively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points follow a line that declines from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent watching television and grades on an exam. As TV time goes up, grades go down. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method? 68

Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation LO 1.12 Advantages Information about one variable can be used to predict the other. Disadvantages Cannot be used to support the conclusion that one variable causes the other 1.12 What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational

Figure 1.3 Correlation Does Not Prove Causation A correlation between two variables does not prove that a cause–effect relationship exists between them. There is a correlation between stress and illness, but that does not mean that stress necessarily causes illness. Both stress and illness may result from another factor, such as poverty or poor general health. 70

The Experimental Method: Experiments and Hypothesis Testing LO 1.13 Can identify cause-effect relationships Designed to assess causal hypotheses Predictions about a cause–effect relationship between two or more variables 1.13 How do researchers use experiments to test causal hypotheses?

The Experimental Method: Independent and Dependent Variables LO 1.13 Independent Variable A factor or condition deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition Dependent Variable A factor or condition measured to determine the impact of the experimental manipulation 1.13 How do researchers use experiments to test causal hypotheses?

Figure 1.5 The Mean Shock intensity Chosen by Provoked and unprovoked Participants In the Lang experiment, participants who thought they were drinking alcohol chose to give significantly stronger shocks, whether provoked or not, than those who believed they were drinking only tonic. Source: Data from Lang et al. (1995)

The Experimental Method: Experimental and Control Groups LO 1.13 Experimental Group Exposed to the independent variable Control Group Exposed to the same experimental environment but not given the independent variable 1.13 How do researchers use experiments to test causal hypotheses?

The Experimental Method: Experimental and Control Groups LO 1.13 Comparing Experimental and Control Groups Researchers judge effects of the independent variable compared to outcomes that occur naturally 1.13 How do researchers use experiments to test causal hypotheses?

The Experimental Method: Limitations LO 1.14 Confounding Variables Factors other than the independent variable that can affect results Selection Bias Assignment to groups such that systematic differences between groups are present at the beginning of an experiment 1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental method?

The Experimental Method: Limitations LO 1.14 Random Assignment The process of selecting participants for experimental and control groups by using a chance procedure to guarantee that each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any of the groups; a control for selection bias. 1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental method?

The Experimental Method: Limitations LO 1.14 Placebo Effect Response to a treatment caused by a person’s expectations, not the treatment Experimenter Bias A researcher’s expectations influence the experiment’s results 1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental method?

The Experimental Method: Limitations LO 1.14 These effects can be controlled by using the double-blind technique. Neither the experimenter nor participants know who is in the experimental or control groups 1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental method?

The Experimental Method: Limitations LO 1.14 Quasi-experiments Comparisons of groups that differ in exposure to a variable of interest that cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons Cross-cultural research Comparisons of mental processes and behaviors among humans living in different cultures 1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental method? 80

Summarize It: Research Methods In Psychology

Participant-Related Bias in Psychological Research APA requires: Researchers must ensure that participants are representative of the population that study’s results will be generalized. Research must include detailed information about participant characteristics. 1.15 How can participants’ characteristics influence a study’s usefulness?

Types of Participant-Related Bias LO 1.15 Whites Overrepresented Subjects are often drawn from college populations more populated with whites. Failure to Include Socioeconomic Status Lacking in much of the research literature comparing white Americans and African Americans 1.15 How can participants’ characteristics influence a study’s usefulness?

Types of Participant-Related Bias LO 1.15 Gender Bias Researchers tend to specify the gender of the sample clearly when subjects are female, but less often when the sample is exclusively male. Ageism Often apparent in the language used in psychological research with older adults 1.15 How can participants’ characteristics influence a study’s usefulness?

Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights LO 1.16 Legality Research must conform to applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations. Institutional Approval Researchers must obtain approval from the institution involved in the study. 1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights?

Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights LO 1.16 Informed Consent Participants must be informed of the purpose of the study and its potential for harming them. Deception Deception is ethical when it is necessary to acquire data. 1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights?

Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights LO 1.16 Debriefing Participants are informed about any deception when the study is complete. Clients, Patients, Students, and Subordinates Participants under another’s authority (i.e., employees) must be assured that participation will not damage the participants. 1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights?

Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights LO 1.16 Payment for Participation Participants can be paid. Must be informed about what is expected in return for payment Publication Report findings in an appropriate forum, such as a scientific journal 1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights?

Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights LO 1.16 Legality Animal research must follow all relevant federal, state, and local laws. Supervision by Experienced Personnel Use of animals must be supervised by people trained in animal care. 1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights?

Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights LO 1.16 Minimization of Discomfort Researchers are ethically bound to minimize any discomfort to research animals. 1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights?