Inheritance of genetic traits Chapter 7

Making a Pedigree A pedigree is a graphic representation of genetic inheritance It is a diagram made up of a set of symbols that identify males and females, individuals affected by the trait being studied, and family relationships

*Carrier: A half-shaded circle or square * Female: circle *Male: square *Affected trait: completely filled in *Death: / line *Mating: connected *Siblings: below Male Parents Siblings Female Affected male Known heterozygotes for recessive allele Affected female Death Mating

Each row shows a generation with most recent at the bottom *Generations are marked with a Roman Numeral *Individuals are in order based on order of birth I Female Male 1 2 II 1 2 3 4 5 III 1 2 3 4 IV 1 2 3 4 5

Simple Recessive Heredity Most genetic disorders are caused by recessive alleles

1. Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a fairly common genetic disorder among white Americans About 1 in 28 white Americans carries the recessive allele, & 1 in 2500 children born to white Americans inherits the disorder. Due to a defective protein in the plasma membrane, cystic fibrosis results in the formation and accumulation of thick mucus in the lungs and digestive tract

2. Tay Sachs Disease Tay-Sachs (tay saks) disease is a recessive disorder of the central nervous system among the Jewish people in the U.S. & eastern European descent A recessive allele results in the absence of an enzyme that normally breaks down a lipid produced and stored in tissues of the central nervous system Because this lipid fails to break down properly, it accumulates in the cells

Typical pedigree for Tay-Sachs Symptoms are not usually visual until around 48 months. Child gradually becomes blind and helpless, develops seizures & eventually paralyzed. The child dies by the age of 3 or 4 No treatment or cure. Can be detected by amniocenteses 1 2 II 1 2 3 4 III 1 2 3 IV 1

3. PKU PKU or Phenylketonuria (fen ul kee tun YOO ree uh), is a recessive disorder that results from the absence of an enzyme that converts one amino acid, phenylalanine, to a different amino acid, tyrosine. Because phenylalanine cannot be broken down, it and its by-products accumulate in the body and result in severe damage to the central nervous system

Phenylketonurics: Contains Phenylalanine Phenylketonuria A PKU test is normally performed on all infants a few days after birth Infants affected by PKU are given a diet that is low in phenylalanine until their brains are fully developed Phenylketonurics: Contains Phenylalanine

Simple Dominant Many traits are inherited just as the rule of dominance predicts Remember that in Mendelian inheritance, a single dominant allele inherited from one parent is all that is needed for a person to show the dominant trait

Some examples of Simple Dominance A cleft chin Widow’s peak hairline Hitchhiker’s thumb Almond shaped eyes Thick lips Presence of hair on the middle section of your fingers

Huntington’s Disease Huntington’s disease is a lethal genetic disorder caused by a rare dominant allele It results in a breakdown of certain areas of the brain Usually, dominant allele with such severe effects would result in death before the affected individual could have children and pass the allele on to the next generation But because the onset of Huntington’s disease usually occurs between the ages of 30 and 50, an individual may already have had children before knowing whether he or she is affected.

Typical Pedigree of Huntington’s Disease leads to progressive degeneration of brain cells, which causes muscle spasms, personality disorders & death in 10-15 years from onset 1 2 II 1 2 3 4 5 III 1 2 3 4 5

When inheritance follows different rules

Incomplete Dominance When traits are inherited in an incomplete dominance pattern, the presence of a 3rd phenotype appears. For example, if a homozygous red-flowered snapdragon plant (RR) is crossed with a homozygous white-flowered snapdragon plant (WW), all of the F1 offspring will have pink flowers

Appearance of a 3rd Phenotype Red White All pink Red (RR) Pink (RR’) White (R’R’) Pink (RR’) All pink flowers 1 red: 2 pink: 1 white

Why a 3rd Phenotype? The new phenotype occurs because the flowers contain enzymes that control pigment production The R allele codes for an enzyme that produces a red pigment. The R’ allele codes for a defective enzyme that makes no pigment. Because the heterozygote has only one copy of the R allele, its flowers appear pink because they produce only half the amount of red pigment that red homozygote flowers produce.

Codominance: expression of both alleles Codominant alleles cause the phenotypes of both homozygotes to be produced in heterozygous individuals. In codominance, both alleles are expressed equally

Sickle Cell Anemia In an individual who is homozygous for the sickle-cell allele, the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin differs by one amino acid from normal hemoglobin This defective hemoglobin forms crystal-like structures that change the shape of the red blood cells. Normal red blood cells are disc-shaped, but abnormal red blood cells are shaped like a sickle, or half-moon

HbAHbA individuals are normal; HbS HbS have sickle-cell trait. With sickle-cell disease, red blood cells are irregular in shape (sickle-shaped) rather than biconcave, due to abnormal hemoglobin that the cells contain. Symptoms results in poor circulation, anemia, low resistance to infection, hemorrhaging, damage to organs, jaundice, and pain of abdomen and joints. Bone marrow transplants pose high risks; other research focuses on fetal hemoglobin, etc

Sickle-cell anemia Abnormally shaped blood cells, slow blood flow, block small vessels, and result in tissue damage and pain. Normal red blood cell Sickle cell

Multiple Alleles: Although each trait has only two alleles in the patterns of heredity you have studied thus far, it is common for more than two alleles to control a trait in a population Traits controlled by more than two alleles have multiple alleles

Multiple alleles: govern blood type Mendel’s laws of heredity also can be applied to traits that have more than two alleles. The A-B-O blood group is a classic example of a single gene that has multiple alleles in humans. Determining blood type is necessary before a person can receive a blood transfusion because the red blood cells of incompatible blood types could clump together, causing death

Multiple Alleles Govern Blood Type Human Blood Types Genotypes Surface Molecules Phenotypes A A lA lA or lAli lB lB or lBi B B lA lB A and B AB ii None O

The ABO Blood Group The gene for blood type, gene l, codes for a molecule that attaches to a membrane protein found on the surface of red blood cells. The lA and lB alleles each code for a different molecule. Your immune system recognizes the red blood cells as belonging to you. If cells with a different surface molecule enter your body, your immune system will attack them.

Surface molecule A is produced. Phenotype A Surface molecule A The lA allele is dominant to i, so inheriting either the lAi alleles or the lA lA alleles from both parents will give you type A blood. Surface molecule A is produced.

The lB allele is also dominant to i. Phenotype B Surface molecule B The lB allele is also dominant to i. To have type B blood, you must inherit the lB allele from one parent and either another lB allele or the i allele from the other. Surface molecule B is produced.

The lA and lB alleles are codominant. Phenotype AB Surface molecule B The lA and lB alleles are codominant. This means that if you inherit the lA allele from one parent and the lB allele from the other, your red blood cells will produce both surface molecules and you will have type AB blood. Surface molecule A

Phenotype O The i allele is recessive and produces no surface molecules. Therefore, if you are homozygous ii, your blood cells have no surface molecules and you have blood type O.

Sex Determination In humans the diploid number of chromosomes is 46, or 23 pairs There are 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes called autosomes. Homologous autosomes look alike. The 23rd pair of chromosomes differs in males and females and are known as the sex chromosomes and are indicated by the letters with X and Y

If you are female, your 23rd pair of chromosomes are homologous, XX. Sex Determination If you are female, your 23rd pair of chromosomes are homologous, XX. X X Female If you are male, your 23rd pair of chromosomes XY, look different. X Y Male

Sex Determination XY Male X Y X XX Female XY Male XX Female X

Sex Linked Inheritance Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes are called sex-linked traits The alleles for sex-linked traits are written as superscripts of the X or Y chromosomes Because the X and Y chromosomes are not homologous, the Y chromosome has no corresponding allele to one on the X chromosome and no superscript is used

Dystrophy sex linked cross White-eyed male (XrY) F2 Females: Red-eyed female (XRXR) all red eyed Males: 1/2 red eyed 1/2 white eyed F1 All red eyed

Sex-Linked Inheritance The pattern of sex-linked inheritance is explained by the fact that males, who are XY, pass an X chromosome to each daughter and a Y chromosome to each son Traits that are governed by X-linked recessive inheritance in humans are 1. red-green color blindness 2. Hemophilia 3. Muscular Dystrophy

Red-Green Color Blindness People who have red-green color blindness can’t differentiate between these two colors. This is caused by the inheritance of a recessive allele at either of two gene sites on the X chromosome.

Hemophilia Hemophilia is an X-linked disorder that causes a problem with blood clotting. About one male in every 10 000 has hemophilia, but only about one in 100 million females inherits the same disorder Males inherit the allele on the X chromosome from their carrier mothers. One recessive allele for hemophilia will cause the disorder in males Females would need two recessive alleles to inherit hemophilia

Skin Color: polygenic inheritance In the early 1900s, the idea that polygenic inheritance occurs in humans was first tested using data collected on skin color. Scientists found that when light-skinned people mate with dark-skinned people, their offspring have intermediate skin colors

Skin color: A polygenic trait This graph shows the expected distribution of human skin color if controlled by one, three, or four genes. Number of Genes Involved in Skin Color Expected distribution- 4 genes Observed distribution of skin color Expected distribution- 1 gene Number of individuals Expected distribution- 3 genes Light Right Range of skin color

Polygenic Inheritance Polygenic inheritance occurs when 1 trait is governed by 2 or more sets of alleles A hybrid cross for skin color provides a range of intermediates This also includes cleft lip, clubfoot, hypertension, diabetes, schizophrenia, allergies & cancers Behavioral traits include suicide, phobias, alcoholism, and maybe homosexuality (not predetermined

Karyotype This chart of chromosome pairs is called a karyotype, and it is valuable in identifying unusual chromosome numbers in cells

Some inheritable disorders that can be detected by using a Karyotype

1. Downs Syndrome 21 or Trisomy 21 Down syndrome is the only autosomal trisomy in which affected individuals survive to adulthood It occurs in about one in 700 live births Down syndrome is a group of symptoms that results from trisomy of chromosome 21 Some degree of mental retardation

2. Turners Syndrome Turner (XO) syndrome females have only one sex chromosome, an X. Turner females are short, have a broad chest and webbed neck. Ovaries of Turner females never become functional; therefore, do not undergo puberty

3. Klinefelter Syndrome Klinefelter syndrome males have one Y chromosome and two or more X chromosomes. Affected individuals are sterile males; testes and prostate are underdeveloped. Individuals have large hands and feet and long arms and legs.

4. Triplo-X Females Triplo-X females have three or more X chromosomes. There is no increased femininity; most lack any physical abnormalities. There is an increased risk of having triplo-X daughters or XXY sons. May experience menstrual irregularities, including early onset of menopause.

5. Jacob Syndrome XYY males with Jacob syndrome have two Y chromosomes instead of one. Results from nondisjunction during meiosis II. Usually taller than average; suffer from persistent acne; tend to have lower intelligence. Earlier claims that XYY individuals were likely to be aggressive are not correct