RECOGNIZING, ANALYZING, AND CONSTRUCTING ARGUMENTS The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn to recognize, analyze, and evaluate arguments.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. How do politicians use logical arguments and rhetoric in political debates? © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Arguments and issues Arguments help us to analyze issues and to assess whether positions on issues are reasonable or unreasonable. An issue is an ill-defined complex of problems involving a controversy or uncertainty. Identifying an issue requires asking the right questions as well as good communication skills. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Despite Brown v. Board of Education (1954) African-Americans still don’t have the same educational opportunities as whites. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Argument recognition Rhetoric is the art of persuasion—it is the defense of a particular position usually without adequate consideration of opposing evidence. Rhetoric can be useful once you have come to a reasoned conclusion, and are now trying to convince others of this conclusion. The goal of rhetoric is to “win.” The purpose of argumentation, in contrast, is to discover the truth. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Was Lincoln’s decision to stand by his conclusion that slavery should be illegal a wise one? Are there times when it is best to back down on an argument rather than risk conflict? © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Are the two people in this photo engaging in rhetoric or argumentation? © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Hot or Not? Is it acceptable to use rhetoric if you’re sure of your position? © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Argument recognition (continued) Arguments are made up of two or more propositions, one of which, the conclusion, is supported by the other(s), the premise(s). There are two types of arguments Deductive arguments contain a conclusion that necessarily follows from the premise. In inductive arguments, the premises provide support but not necessarily proof for the conclusion. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Propositions, conclusions, and premises Propositions are statements that express a complete thought. A proposition can either be true or false. The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is supported or denied on the basis of other propositions or reasons. Also called claims, viewpoints, and positions, it is what the argument is trying to prove. A conclusion can appear anywhere in an argument. Premises are propositions that support or give reasons for acceptance of the argument. Reasoning proceeds from the premises to the conclusion. Good premises are based on fact and experience. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Proposition: “The Earth revolves around the sun.” © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Types of premises There are several types of premises. Descriptive premises are based on empirical facts: scientific observation and/or sensory experience. Prescriptive premises, in contrast, contain value statements. Analogical premises take the form of an analogy in which a comparison is made between two similar events or things. Definitional premises contain a definition of a key term for purposes of precision or clarification. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nonarguments: explanations and conditional statements Sometimes we confuse arguments with explanations and conditional statements. An explanation is a statement about why or how something is the case. A conditional statement is an “If…then…” statement that offers no claim or conclusion. Unlike explanations and conditional statements, an argument tries to prove that something is true. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Conditional statement: “If 18-year-olds are emotionally mature enough to go to war, then they should be allowed to drink alcohol.” © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Breaking down arguments 15 Knowing how to diagram and identify parts of an argument allows us to visualize the entire argument, its propositions, and its premise/conclusion relationship. Before you can diagram an argument, you must first break it down into its propositions. First, bracket the propositions; second, identify the conclusion; third, identify the premises. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Bracket the propositions: “[Students who sit in front of a classroom generally earn higher grades.] Therefore, [you should move up to the front of the class], since [I know you want to improve your grade point average].” © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Diagramming arguments using symbols 17 Diagramming arguments involves the use of specific symbols to identify the different parts of an argument and their relationships to each other. A circled number is used to indicate a proposition and where it appears in the argument. A broken circle is used to indicate an unstated premise or conclusion. An arrow is used to indicate the relationship between an independent premise and the conclusion. A line is used to connect dependent premises. A line with an arrow below it is used to indicate the relationship between dependent premises and the conclusion. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Argument with independent premises © 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Argument with dependent premises [The Bible states in Leviticus 20:26, “You should not practice augury or witchcraft.”] Therefore, [the Harry Potter books are not suitable reading for children,] since [Harry Potter is a wizard] and [wizards practice augury]. 1 2 3 4 1 3 4 2 Argument with dependent premises © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. These people are burning Harry Potter books based on their conclusion that Harry is a wizard and witchcraft should not be practiced. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Argument with an unstated conclusion Laws that permit public colleges to discriminate against applicants on the basis of race or sex are unconstitutional. The University of Michigan’s affirmative action policy that awards extra points on the basis of a person’s race and sex discriminates against white males. 1 2 Laws that permit public colleges to discriminate against applicants on the basis of race or sex are unconstitutional. The University of Michigan’s affirmative action policy that awards extra points on the basis of a person’s race and sex discriminates against white males. Therefore, the University of Michigan’s affirmative action policy is unconstitutional. 1 1 2 2 3 3 Argument with an unstated conclusion © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. College students are divided regarding the morality and constitutionality of affirmative action in college admissions. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Hot or Not? Does knowing how to break down and diagram arguments serve any practical purpose in your life? © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Evaluating arguments Knowing how to break down and diagram arguments makes it easier for you to evaluate them. Five criteria are useful for evaluating arguments: Clarity Credibility Relevance Completeness Soundness © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluating clarity and credibility 25 Clarity: Is the argument clear and unambiguous? Clarifying another person’s argument requires good listening skills and openness to ideas that may differ from your own. Credibility: Are the premises supported by evidence? Examine each premise carefully. Be alert for assumptions that are passed off as facts. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. “Boys become doctors; girls become nurses”— if one of the premises is false, the premises do not support the conclusion. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluating relevance and completeness 28 Relevance: Are the premises relevant to the conclusion? In addition to being true, the premises should provide good reasons for accepting the conclusion. Completeness: Are there any unstated premises and conclusions? This is often the case within arguments that are incompletely researched or loaded with confirmation bias. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Evaluating soundness 29 Soundness: Are the premises true, and do they support the conclusion? A sound argument is one in which the premises are true and they support the conclusion. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Constructing an argument 30 Once you know how to identify, deconstruct, and evaluate arguments, you are ready to construct your own. The following eight steps are a useful guide to help you improve the quality of your arguments. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Eight steps to better arguments Begin by stating the issue. Try to use neutral language. Develop a list of premises. Remain as objective and open-minded as possible. Eliminate weak or irrelevant premises. Establish a conclusion. Organize your argument. Clearly state your conclusion, or thesis statement, in the opening paragraph. Test your argument using others. Revise your argument if necessary. If appropriate, act on your conclusion or solution. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Working collaboratively to identify and eliminate weak or biased premises can help make your argument stronger. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Hot or Not? Does the two-party system in the United States discourage the use of logical argumentation in resolving issues? © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Writing papers using logical arguments 34 Writing effective college papers requires the use of good structure, both in your argument and in the paper itself. Use the following approach as a guide: Identify the issue Present the premises Present and address counterarguments End the paper with an expanded version of your conclusion. Restate the issue, and summarize your argument thoroughly. Be sure to include references for all facts and evidence used. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The dangers of jumping to a conclusion © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Conclusions 36 Arguments are useful tools for making real-life decisions. Skilled critical thinkers employ them to recognize conflict and avoid or defuse it. They also avoid jumping to premature conclusions, only taking a stand after studying an issue from multiple perspectives. © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Perspectives on same-sex marriage © 2015, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.