Planning & Implementing Bi- /trilingual Teacher Development Programmes Trilingual Education: National and International Experience Astana, Kazakhstan, 23-24 November 2016 Kathleen Heugh

Outline Considerations for planning a teacher education programme What we learned at the University of Cape Town through trial & error What we learn from teachers What we learn from students Reflection, reflexivity and on-going classroom-based research

Theoretical & pedagogical considerations for planning a programme How language, bilingualism and trilingualism are understood and foregrounded in the design of the teacher development programme Differences between: teaching literacy and language as a subject, and teaching literacy and language across the curriculum Role of code-switching, translation, interpreting and translanguaging in the teaching and learning: of language as a subject across the curriculum How to build academic literacy and language into curriculum and assessment Bilingual and trilingual assessment Language repertoires of the teachers (student teachers) Language ideologies of the teachers (student teachers)

What we learned at the University of Cape Town: Advanced Certificate in Multilingual Education Original Design National Language (Education) Policy Bilingual education models Language acquisition/learning Theory Teachers’ language learning: Xhosa, Afrikaans, English Developing bi-/trilingual teaching resources Teaching practice Assessment tasks in English Re-prioritisation Identifying teachers’ own good practices Sharing how teachers are already developing bi-/trilingual resources Focus on teaching practices Assessment of (student) teachers in Xhosa, Afrikaans & English Importance of teachers as language learners Bilingual education theory & practice National Language (Education) Policy

Bi-trilingual education involves all teachers Differences between: teaching literacy and language as a subject, and teaching literacy and language across the curriculum All teachers need to understand that learning a language and using a language to learn are not the same. All teachers need to build the language and literacy needs of the subject into teaching of the subject.

Gaps between early literacy and academic literacy (in African contexts) Literacy in L1 – loses emphasis by year 3. Gap between early literacy ‘Learning to read’ narratives and the kind of literacy required across the curriculum ‘Reading to learn’ science, maths, history, geography etc. from year 4 onwards. Attempts to use L2 [when learners have ± 500-600 words] for whole curriculum [ ± 5000-7000 words] from year 4 ≠ workable. The double jump is too great.

What we learn from teachers: experience, expertise, knowledge in informal education Muskaan - Community-based organisation Located in a ‘slum’ setting of Bhopal, in India Tribal Gondi children participate in informal educational programmes here Chandni, young Gondi- speaking teacher (right-hand corner of pic) This is a photograph taken outside a small CBO, Muskaan, in Bhopal in September 2012. Muskaan works in a slum with children from a Gondi Tribal background. From time to time there is collaboration with Eklavya. Here we see a young Gondi speaking teacher, Chandni, in far right corner, cleaning child’s nails. [Muskaan is led by Shivani, and Eklavya led by Anjali Noronha]

Literacy and bilingual intervention supports learning & teaching of Hindi and English Eklavya, NGO, provides bilingual education (Hindi – English) & teacher education Teachers at Muskaan participate in the bilingual project Rama Agnihotri, University of Delhi, suggests that keeping languages separated prevents most multilingual children from writing and speaking. Mixing languages (code- mixing, code-switching) is normal. . Anjali Noronha, Chandni and two other Eklavya teachers reading the materials that Eklavya has prepared in Hindi and English and that are being used in Muskaan with the children who are speakers of Gondi. Note that Chandni is holding one of the published texts.

Don’t try to translate!

Learning from teachers 2: Migrant community from Afghanistan in South Australia T1: uses bilingual Dari-English methodology with girls T2: uses jokes to defuse tension & maintain student participation; connects Dari lesson content with South Australian sport/sporting clubs – teaching boys Young members of the Hazara community Not trained in bilingual education Both find ways to connect the learning of Dari to the South Australian context and the context in Afghanistan Both use informal spoken Dari & English (translanguaging) & formal writing in Dari

Learning from teachers 3: two South African teachers - translanguaging & formal bilingual teaching Lappies Labuschagne Zanele [Naledi] Mbude 1986: during apartheid Teacher of Afrikaans - Cape Town ‘Illegitimate’ linguistic capital: Tsotsitaal – gangster language of townships near Johannesburg [Nguni/Sotho + Afrikaans] Rebellious English-speaking high school students – Access to this code = linguistic capital Trade access with compliance in the Afrikaans literature class 2000-2002: Post-apartheid Multilingual Teacher Education programme, University of Cape Town Science teacher: Teaching Science: Xhosa- English bilingual pedagogy Rebellious Xhosa-speaking youth Teacher switches to IsiCamtho [Nguni-based urban / gangster language + Afrikaans] Students become co-operative Teacher returns to structured bilingual Xhosa-English Science teaching

What we learn from multilingual children / teenagers in Uganda Ekkehard Wolff (2000): Multilingualism among Ugandan children & youth who use: Nubi (an informal local language), Luganda (regional language Uganda), Swahili (regional language East Africa) and English Young people make deliberate choices about when to change language (code-switch). Older children decide who is allowed to use which code, and when. Younger children may only use Nubi and Luganda in the presence of the older children, Older children show off their linguistic power by using all languages in their repertoires especially Swahili and English to symbolise their superior status to younger children When older children are not there, younger children experiment with KiSwahili and English Children experiment with their language repertoires outside of the classroom . (http://www.praesa.org.za/files/2012/07/Paper4.pdf). LWC – lingua franca, language of wider communication

Successful teacher development Recognise that bi-/trilingualism is normal for most people, including teachers and their students Recognise what (student) teachers already know Build on (student) teachers’ own linguistic repertoires Encourage Reflection Reflexivity and On-going classroom-based research Children to teach one another and their teachers Teachers can encourage children / students to bring their languages into the classroom Teachers do not need to know all of the languages of their students A functional multilingual approach makes use of conventional bilingual pedagogy and translanguaging

A functional view of bi-/trilingualism in education Horizontal & Vertical dimensions     Horizontal Co-operative, inclusive & bridging practices Fluid moving back & forth between languages Code-mixing, code-switching, texting, hybrid languages (Translanguaging) Vertical Exclusive, bounded & practices of difference Multiple parallel monolingualisms: education, government, legal systems, literary works Formal translation & interpreting Horizontal and vertical Reduces inequalities, & maximises recognition & development of students’ linguistic resources