‘The End of History?’ Dr. Andy Mansfield

Francis Fukuyama 1980s Neoconservative: liberalism & US interests ‘The End of History?’ (1989): National Interest The End of History and the Last Man (1992)

‘The End of History?’ Article Key Points: Triumph of Liberalism – no alternatives Reached the ‘end of history’ – no improvement on liberalism Defeat of C20 opponents of liberalism – i.e. socialism and fascism End of history a ‘sad time’ – homogenised world focused on economics and consumerism

The End of History Justify & explain article Liberal democracy the ‘end point of ideological evolution’ Liberal democracy free from contradictions The final form of government

What is the End of History? ‘[W]hat I suggested had come to an end was not the occurrence of events, even large and grave events, but History: that is, history understood as a single, coherent, evolutionary process, when taking into account the experience of all the peoples in all the times’ Evolution/ history not open-ended End: satisfies deepest & most fundamental longings Hegel: the liberal state Marx: communist society

Recognition & the Historical Process Hegel: desire for recognition & accompanying emotions drive ‘the historical process’ Plato (Republic): Tripartite soul: (i) Desiring part: seek outside self (ii) Reasoning: calculate best way to obtain (iii) ‘Spiritedness’ (thymos): need for recognition of own worth = innate sense of worth (shame & pride) Plato (c. 428 – c. 347 BCE)

Hegel’s Historical Process G W F Hegel (1770 - 1831) Desire for recognition ‘First Man’: Battle to the death for prestige Division of Mankind: Master (willing to risk his life) Slave (gave in to fear of death) Lack of recognition ignites further stages of history

Hegel’s Universal History ‘The History of the world is none other than the progress of the consciousness of freedom’ – Hegel Growth of equality & human freedom Stages: Despot, Classical, Constitutionalism History the rise to full rationality = expressed in liberal self-government The Dialectic (dialogue): thesis + antithesis = synthesis (consciousness) Battle of Jena (1806)

Human Rights Anglo-Saxon Rights: preserve individual in private sphere = enrich self & satisfy desires Hobbes & Locke: Man passion-driven (desire) so require government (reason) for security & to accumulate wealth. Thymos: recognition is the true motivation for action – (not found in Hobbes & Locke, but in Hegel) John Locke (1632 - 1704)

Geist: Spirit & Mind For Hegel the French Revolution ‘took the Christian vision of free & equal society … implemented on earth’ Christian ideals realised on earth Geist (God): spirit and mind on earth Democracy enables recognition people seek Napoleon exported liberty & equality

Marx on Hegel Attacked Hegel’s defence of private economic & political activity’ Liberal State did not universalise freedom – only Bourgeoisie Created Alienation & Oppression Hegelian Dialectic: Six Stages (epochs) of Material History Communist ‘End of History’ Karl Marx (1818 - 83)

War & Democracy War created modern states – expand government to control kingdom & obtain tax War & technology unifies state – protection & competition with other states War is driven by the need for recognition (Hegel) Liberal Democracy replaces the desire for irrational recognition = all equal & recognised Democracies do not fight democracies

Democracy Everywhere C19 characterised by hope: Science and the mastery of nature Democratic government via Revolution C20 failure of totalitarian regimes Fills the void Has legitimacy of the people – capable of change Capitalism – improved by democratic freedom = potential of the individual

Liberalism Recognises individual’s rights & freedoms: Civil: citizenship & property Religious: free practise of worship & toleration (opinions) Political: freedoms if not effecting community Islamic Fundamentalism: no appeal to the West – would not willingly lose above rights Delacroix, Liberty leading the People (1830)

Prevention of Democracy Excessive nationalism Predominance of religion Highly unequal social structure Country where people not free to interact Strength: natural development in Britain & US

Nietzsche’s ‘First Man’ Homogeneity of peoples – same consumer goods, interests, media – (US dominated) Nietzsche: democracy removed discontent, division & angst Slave mentality dominant – but people still strive for recognition & greatness Recreate the First Man – fight the Last Man = human excellence Nietzsche (1844 - 1900)

Responses to Fukuyama Allan Bloom: agrees with Fukuyama – issues of race, class & family have been conquered Pierre Hasner: experiences of ‘Auschwitz & totalitarianism’ had removed importance of ideology Himmelfarb: something fundamental had changed in C20, but (a) how has history ended when still alive, & (b) did ideologies fail when so signigicant

Responses II Irving Kristol: All governments are unstable, including democracy – could eventually fail! Moynihan: expansionist behaviour of US in 1980s shows historical activity Huntington: (a) Cultural divisions (‘clash of civilisations’) will dominate the future for states (b) West will have to accommodate the east