“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." Karl Marx

Elite Officials in China For more than 2,000 years, Chinese state officials or bureaucrats acting in the name of the emperor represented the cultural and social elite of China This system of selecting administrators evolved into the world’s first professional civil service In 124 BCE, Emperor Wu Di established an imperial academy where potential officials were trained as scholars and immersed in Chinese classical texts with an emphasis on Confucian teachings

By the end of the Han dynasty, this imperial academy enrolled some 30,000 students who were by then subjected to a series of written examinations to select officials of various grades In theory, the examination system was open to all men but favored wealthy families, families who could afford the years of education required to pass even the low-level exams But sometimes village communities would support the education of a bright young man from a commoner family The examination system provided a modest measure of social mobility

In China, wealth meant land When the Qin dynasty unified China by 210 BCE, most land was held by small-scale peasant farmers But by the first century BCE, population pressure, taxation, and indebtedness had generated a class of large landowners as impoverished peasants found it necessary to sell their lands to more prosperous neighbors Landlords of large estates were often able to avoid paying taxes, thus decreasing state revenues and increasing the tax burden on the peasants

Throughout the history of China, the vast majority of its population has been peasants Nature, the state, and landlords combined to make the life of most peasants extremely vulnerable State authorities required taxes, demanded a month’s labor every year on various public projects, and conscripted young men for two years of military service Such conditions generated periodic peasant rebellions like the Yellow Turban Rebellion which swelled to about 360,000 armed followers by 184 CE as floods along the Yellow River and epidemics compounded the misery of the peasants

Merchants did not enjoy a favorable reputation in China. They were viewed as unproductive, making a shameful profit from selling the work of others. Although wealthier than peasants, their status was lower.

Caste in India The best scholars can say is that the distinctive social system of classical India grew out of the interaction of many culturally different peoples on the South Asian peninsula together with the inequalities of “civilization” By the beginning of the classical era, the idea that society was forever divided into four great classes known as varna was a part of Indian life At the top were the Brahmins or priests followed by Ksatriya or warriors then Vaisya or commoners then Sudras or native peoples incorporated into the margins of Aryan society

The first three castes came to be regarded as pure Aryans and were called the “twice-born” because they experienced not only a physical birth but also formal initiation into their respective varnas and status as people of Aryan descent.

The Vaisya varna, originally defined as cultivators, evolved into a business class with a prominent place for merchants, while the Sudra varna became the domain of peasant farmers. Finally, a new category, ranking lower than Sudras, emerged in the so-called untouchables, people who did the work considered most unclean and polluting As urban-based civilization gave rise to specialized occupations, many organized in guilds that regulated their own affairs Over time, these occupationally based groups, known as jatis, blended with the varna system to create classical India’s unique caste-based society

Hindu notions of karma, dharma, and rebirth became the basis for viewing a person born to a particular caste as reflecting the good or bad deeds of a previous life.

Because caste (jati) was a local phenomenon, India seldom experienced an empire that encompassed the entire subcontinent Caste provided a substitute for the state as an integrative mechanism for Indian civilization It offered a distinct place for almost everyone Jatis provided a modest measure of social security and support Caste provided a means of accommodating the many migrating or invading peoples who entered the subcontinent Caste also facilitated the exploitation of the poor by the wealthy and powerful Organized resistance across caste lines was more difficult to achieve

Slavery in the Roman Empire Slavery generally meant ownership by a master, the possibility of being sold, working without pay, and the status of an “outsider” In classical Rome, a fair number of slaves might be emancipated in their own lifetimes In China, it was a minor element, amounting to perhaps 1 percent of the population (note difference) In sharp contrast, slavery played an immense role in the Mediterranean world -Athens was home to 60,000 slaves or about one- third of the population

Practiced on an even larger scale, slavery was a defining element of Roman society -33-40% of the population by the time of Christ The vast majority of Roman slaves had been prisoners captured in the many wars that accompanied the creation of the empire However, Roman slavery was not identified with a particular racial or ethnic group Romans regarded their slaves as “barbarians” Even the triumph of Christianity within the Roman Empire did little to undermine slavery No occupation was off-limits to slaves except military service, and no distinction existed between jobs for slaves and those for free people

On several occasions, the slaves themselves rose in rebellion The most famous uprising occurred in 73 BCE, when a slave gladiator named Spartacus led seventy other slaves in a desperate bid for freedom -For two years, set Italy ablaze but then defeated -6,000 rebel slaves were nailed to crosses along the Appian Way from Rome to Capua, where the revolt had begun (WOW) Rebellions created a perpetual fear in the minds of slave owners but the slave system itself was hardly affected

Patriarchy in the Classical World No division of human society has had greater significance for the lives of individuals than that between male and female Patriarchal systems emerged, systems that favored the dominance of men over women Men were regarded as superior to women and sons were preferred over daughters Men had legal and property rights unknown to most women Public life was a male domain while women’s roles took place in domestic settings

In China, Confucianism provided a philosophical basis for the subjugation of women The “three obediences” – a woman was subordinate first to her father, then to her husband, and finally to her son The Chinese woman writer and court official Ban Zhou (45-116 CE) stated that when a baby girl was born, she was placed below the bed to show that she was “lowly and weak,” required always to “humble herself before others.” She was given a piece of broken pottery to signify “her primary duty to be industrious” and her birth was announced to the ancestors with an offering to indicate that she was responsible for “the continuation of (ancestor) worship in the home.”

With the collapse of the Han dynasty, pastoral and nomadic people invaded northern China. In general, the culture of nomadic peoples allowed women more freedoms The reign of Empress Wu (reigned 690-705 CE) also caused distress to the Confucian orthodoxy But it was not an end to patriarchy Patriarchies fluctuated but remained strong In Athens, women were excluded from public life and subordinate to men Even in Sparta, patriarchy was strong with women serving as breeding machines for its military system and lacking any formal role in public life but it was a lighter patriarchy than Athens

Strayer Questions How would you describe the social hierarchy of classical China? What class conflicts disrupted Chinese society? What set of ideas underlies India's caste-based society? What's the difference between varna and jati as expressions of classical India's caste system?

Strayer Questions How did India's caste system differ from China's caste system? How did the inequalities of slavery differ from those of caste? How did Greco-Roman slavery differ from that of other classical civilizations? In what ways did the expression of Chinese patriarchy change over time, and why did it change? How did the patriarchies of Athens and Sparta differ from each other?