Topic 1: Body Organization Zygote: fertilized cell created by the union of the egg and sperm >200 types of human cells Embryonic stem cells Created during earliest divisions Potential to become any type of cell

Determination Determination Process where stem cells commit to a specific type Few weeks into development Irreversible

Differentiation Differentiation Process where cells acquire the structures & functions of a specialized cell Specific genes activated Ex: Nerve cells grow dendrites

Organization Cell: Basic unit Tissue: Group of cells 4 types Organ: Groups of tissue Ex: lung contains each tissue Organ System: Group of organs working together Digestive System Organism: all organ systems working together

Body Tissues Muscle: contracting cells Skeletal, cardiac cells

Body Tissues Connective Tissue: Support the body Bone, fat, tendons

Body Tissues Epithelial: protection sheet of cells skin, stomach lining

Body Tissues Nerve Tissue: Transmit electric signals Brain & Spinal Cord

Topic 2: Homeostasis

Homeostasis Process where the body maintains a constant internal environment Reactions & enzymes work best in specific conditions Control systems adjust to internal/external changes pH, temp, fluids Constant internal environment maintained

Control Systems Sensors (aka: receptors) !*%!?%&# Sensors (aka: receptors) Gather information about the body and environment Ex: skin senses pressure Communication Center Messages sent throughout the body to respond Ex: Impulse travel through your nerves Control Center Receives information from the sensors Ex: Brain interprets the impulse Targets Body part that changes its activity Ex: Muscles in foot stretch/contract abruptly

Negative Feedback Loops Regulates most of the body Counters changes in the body that move conditions away from a set point Reverses the change Keeps internal environment stable

Positive Feedback Loop Increases the changes away from set points Important when rapid changes needed Ex: Oxytocin released When uterus contractions begin, oxytocin released to speed up the contractions (not stop them)

Working Together Thermoregulation: Maintenance of body temperature Skin: sensors provide feedback to brain Nervous & Endocrine system: send messages to/from brain Muscles: Start to shiver

Homeostasis disruption Sensors fail Wrong messages sent Message doesn’t reach target Serious injury Microorganism infection Short Term Temporary discomfort (usually)

Long Term: Diabetes Normal Cells Glucose circulates in blood; pancreas releases insulin High glucose levels: insulin opens gates of cells to allow glucose to enter Glucose levels lowered Type 1 Diabetes Immune system destroys cells to produce insulin Pancreas fails: no signal for gates to open = glucose accumulated in blood stream Type 2 Diabetes Low insulin production due to overworked pancreas No signal for gates to open = glucose accumulated in blood stream

Topic 3: The Nervous System

Neurons AKA: Nerve Cells Transfer electrical impulses to/from the brain 3 Main Parts Cell body: contains nucleus and organelles Dendrites: branches that receive messages from neighboring cells Axon: extension that carries messages away from the cell body

Resting Potential Defined: Neuron at rest Neuron Exterior: Positive charge Mainly Na+ outside the cell Neuron Interior: Negative charge (from various proteins) K+ inside the cell - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - APPEAR/HIDE

Action Potential Defined: Electrical impulse is triggered Front end of impulse Na+ enter the cell Negative impulse attracted towards positive Na+ Back end of impulse K+ exits the cell Interior returns to normal charge Impulse pulled along by the changing of electrical charges

impulse

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ negative impulse K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ Na+ K+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Synapse Defined: Gap between neurons Problem: Impulse cannot cross the gap Solution: Impulse converted into chemical molecules (neurotransmitters) Steps: Impulse reaches neuron’s end Vesicle releases neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters attach to neighboring neuron New impulse created

Impulse stimulates a vesicle, which contains neurotransmitters Vesicle exits the cell and dissolves impulse Start of another cell End of one cell

Neurotransmitters stimulate a new impulse cross the synapse and attach to receptors of a neighboring neuron impulse impulse Start of another cell End of one cell

Brain …. …. …. …. Feet

Motor neurons reach the muscles Impulse causes the muscles to stretch and contract…this causes MOVEMENT!

Topic 4: The Senses

Eye Anatomy Cornea Iris Pupil Lens Retina Protective layer of the eye Colored part of the eye Contains muscles to open & close the pupil Pupil Size adjusts with light Small: more light Large: less light Lens Focuses light onto the retina Retina Back of the eye Contains rods & cones

Vision Process 1) Light passes through pupil #3 #2 #1 1) Light passes through pupil 2) Lens focuses light onto retina 3) Photoreceptors of the retina create impulses Impulse travels up optic nerve to brain

Ear Anatomy Pinna Outer ear Eardrum Amplifies sound by 3 bones: malleus, incus, stapes Cochlea Contains mechanoreceptors (measures pressure)

Sound Transmission 1) Sound waves (vibration of the air) enters the ear canal 2) Eardrum & the small bones vibrate 3) Fluid in the cochlea vibrates 4) Hair cells in the cochlea bend 5) Impulse transmitted through the auditory nerve and to the brain

Smell & Taste Nose Tongue Scent chemicals dissolve in mucus Impulse travels from olfactory nerve to brain Tongue Chemicals dissolve in saliva Chemoreceptors in taste buds creates impulse

Touch, Temperature, Pain Mechanoreceptors in skin sense pressure Upper layer: gentle touches Lower layer: heavy pressure Thermoreceptors & Pain receptors detect temps and chemicals released by damaged cells Impulses sent to brain

Topic 5: The Immune System

The Skin 1st line of defense: physical barrier Oils & sweat destroy some pathogens Some cells burst Some cells shrivel

Mucus Membranes Coat the openings of the body Nose, mouth, ears, eyes, genitals, anus Lined with cilia & sticky fluids to trap pathogens

White Blood Cells T cells: destroy infected body cells Job: Search & destroy 1) Phagocytes: surround & engulf invaders by phagocytosis 2) Lymphocytes: T cells: destroy infected body cells B cells: Inactivate invaders

phagocyte bacteria phagocyte

Defense Proteins Complimentary Proteins Weaken cell membrane Attract phagocytes Cause microbes to stick to wall of blood vessel

Defense Proteins Antibodies Made by B cells Stick to pathogens Causes pathogens to clump More susceptible to phagocytes Weakens the cell membrane Causes them to burst

Defense Proteins Interferon Produced by virus infected cells Stimulates uninfected cells to create infection preventing enzymes

Vaccination Prevents infections (not a cure) Memory cells developed without actually getting the disease Vaccine Contains antigens of a pathogen Weakened pathogen is injected Stimulates the production of memory cells Speeds up immune response if you encounter the unweakened virus Vaccination

Topic 6: Blood 47

Components of Blood Whole blood RBCs WBCs Platelets: cell fragments that aid in clotting Plasma 90% water (allows materials to dissolve) Amino acids, glucose, hormones, vitamins, salts, waste Concentrations allows diffusion in/out of blood stream

Red Blood Cells Produced from stem cells in bone marrow Lose nucleus as they mature Transport O2 to cells O2 binds to hemoglobin proteins Dead cells filtered by liver & spleen

ABO Blood Groups Proteins on blood cells determined blood type Antigen (markers) proteins on cell’s surface that identify cells as foreign or natural Antibodies: proteins from WBCs to attack invaders Float freely in plasma

Type A Blood Antigens: A Antibodies: B Type B Blood Antigens: B Antibodies: A Type AB Blood Antigens: A, B Antibodies: ---- Type O Blood Antigens: ----Antibodies: A, B

Rh Factors Rh+ Rh- Have Rh antigens Lack Rh antibodies Lack Rh antigens Have Rh antibodies

Blood type AB+ Antigens: Which does they have? A B Rh Antibodies: Which does they have? A B Rh

Blood type O+ Antigens: Which does they have? A B Rh Antibodies: Which does they have? A B Rh

Blood type AB- Antigens: Which does they have? A B Rh Antibodies: Which does they have? A B Rh

Blood type B+ Antigens: Which does they have? A B Rh Antibodies: Which does they have? A B Rh

Blood type O- Antigens: Which does they have? A B Rh Antibodies: Which does they have? A B Rh

Francis was just in a bad accident and lost a lot of blood Francis was just in a bad accident and lost a lot of blood. He is blood type B+. Can you help save him?

Blood type B+ Antigens: Which does he have? A B Rh Antibodies: Which does he have? A B Rh

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens Can he accept B+ blood? B antigens Rh antigens B+ B antigens Rh antigens B+ B antigens Rh antigens Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur. Vein B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens Can he accept B- blood? B antigens B- B antigens B- B antigens Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur. Vein B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens Can he accept A+ blood? A antigens Rh antigens A+ A antigens Rh antigens A+ A antigens Rh antigens No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. Vein B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens Can he accept A- blood? A antigens A- A antigens A- A antigens No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. Vein B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens Can he accept AB+ blood? A antigens B antigens Rh antigens AB+ A antigens B antigens Rh antigens AB+ A antigens B antigens Rh antigens No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. Vein B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens Can he accept AB- blood? A antigens B antigens AB- A antigens B antigens AB- A antigens B antigens No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. Vein B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens Can he accept O+ blood? Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur. Vein B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody

This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens Can he accept O- blood? No antigens O- No antigens O- No antigens Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur. Vein B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody B+ B antigens Rh antigens A antibody

Sebastian was just involved in an accident at work and lost a lot of blood. He is blood type A-. Can you help save him?

Blood type A- Antigens: Which does he have? A B Rh Antibodies: Which does he have? A B Rh

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen Can he accept A- blood? A antigens A- A antigens A- A antigens Yes. The B and Rh antibodies do not have antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur. A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody A- A antigens A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen Can he accept A+ blood? A antigens Rh antigens A+ A antigens Rh antigens A+ A antigens Rh antigens No. The Rh antibodies will attack the Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody A- A antigens A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen Can he accept B- blood? B antigens B- B antigens B- B antigens No. The B antibodies will attack the B antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody A- A antigens A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen Can he accept B+ blood? B antigens Rh antigens B+ B antigens Rh antigens B+ B antigens Rh antigens No. Both B and Rh antibodies will attack the B and Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody A- A antigens A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen Can he accept AB- blood? A antigens B antigen AB- A antigens B antigen AB- A antigens B antigen No. The B antibodies will attack the B antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody A- A antigens A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen Can he accept AB+ blood? A antigens B antigens Rh antigens AB+ A antigens B antigens Rh antigens AB+ A antigens B antigens Rh antigens No. Both B and Rh antibodies will attack the B and Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. A- A antigens B antibody Rh antibody A- A antigens A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen Can he accept O- blood? No antigens O- No antigens O- No antigens Yes. The antibodies do not have antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur. A- A antigens B antibody Rh antibody A- A antigens A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody

This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen Can he accept O+ blood? Rh antigens O+ Rh antigens O+ Rh antigens No. Rh antibodies will attack the Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die. A- A antigens B antibody Rh antibody A- A antigens A- A antigens Rh antibody B antibody

Topic 7: Endocrine System

Endocrine System Overview Physically disconnected Controls growth, development, environmental responses Glands: Major organs of the endocrine system makes hormones Hormones: chemical signals that move through blood Hormones attach to cell receptor Target cells produce proteins

Steroid and Non-Steroid Hormones Naturally produced by the body Travel through blood Attaches to receptor of the target cell Stimulate protein creation

Major Glands Glands create hormones Hypothalamus Stimulates the pituitary gland to release hormones Helps controls growth, reproduction, body temp Pituitary gland Controls cell growth Stimulates other glands Thyroid gland Regulates metabolism, growth, development Thymus Allows WBCs to mature to fight infection

Major Glands Adrenal Glands Controls “fight or flight” response Increases breathing, alertness, blood pressure Pancreas Controls glucose level in blood Gonads: influence sexual development Testes (males): produces testosterone Ovaries: produces estrogen, progesterone

cold hormone A hormone B hormone C

Effects of testosterone

Hypothalamus/ Pituitary gland Thyroid thymus Adrenal glands pancreas ovaries testes