Space agencies Programmatics Science projects Technical challenges David Lumb, ESTEC. Study Scientist for ATHENA & XIPE. ESA Project Scientist for AstroH Formerly worked in fields of X-ray detectors, X-ray and Gamma Ray Optics, Formation-Flying satellites, Study Manager for Euclid

The Agencies Agency Formed Budget ( Bn€ ) NASA 1959 15 ESA 1975 4 Agencies do not homogenously support space research Different agendae, national priorities and budget scenarios National agencies like CNES, DLR, ASI, UKSA, CSA also work in national, bi-lateral and co-operative programmes Additional sources, including military, NOAA, EUMETSAT, Telecomms. and increasingly private Agency Formed Budget ( Bn€ ) NASA 1959 15 ESA 1975 4 ROSCOSMOS 1992 3 JAXA 2003 2 ISRO 1969 1 CNSA 1993

Cooperation and Competition COSPAR promotes scientific research in space at international level, with emphasis on the free exchange of information & provides a forum, for the discussion of problems that may affect space research Space is expensive, so to maintain broad coverage of all disciplines in reasonable horizon calls for joint programmes Launch capability, technology domain expertise as well as local priorities etc. define who does what Different funding schedules (e.g. NASA 1 year congressional approval cycle) make planning difficult This contributed to reduced interest in pursuing large 50/50 programmes (who has management and oversight?) At < 1 mission/year 5 wavebands, 5-6 planets, magnetosphere, solar physics this implies 1 opportunity per decade !

SCIENCE & ROBOTIC EXPLORATION

ESA’S REMARKABLE PIONEERS OF SCIENCE Hipparcos (1989–93) most comprehensive star-mapper IUE (1978–96) longest-living orbiting observatory Giotto (1986) closest ever flyby of a comet nucleus Ulysses (1990–2008) first craft to fly over Sun’s poles ISO (1995–8) first European infrared observatory SMART-1 (2003–6) first European mission to the Moon

HUYGENS First landing on a world in the outer Solar System In 2005, ESA’s Huygens probe made the most distant landing ever, on Titan, the largest moon of Saturn (about 1427 million km from the Sun).

TODAY’S ESA SCIENCE MISSIONS (1) XMM-Newton (1999– ) X-ray telescope Cluster (2000– ) four spacecraft studying the solar wind Integral (2002– ) observing objects in gamma and X-rays Hubble (1990– ) orbiting observatory for ultraviolet, visible and infrared astronomy (with NASA) SOHO (1995– ) studying our Sun and its environment (with NASA)

TODAY’S ESA SCIENCE MISSIONS (2) Mars Express (2003– ) studying Mars, its moons and atmosphere from orbit Rosetta (2004– ) the first long-term mission to study and land on a comet Venus Express (2005–2014) studying Venus and its atmosphere from orbit Planck (2009– 2014) studying relic radiation from the Big Bang Herschel (2009– 2013) 3.5m dia IR and sub-mm telescope, star formation, dust & molecules Gaia (2013– ) mapping a thousand million stars in our galaxy

UPCOMING ESA MISSIONS (1) LISA Pathfinder (2015) testing technologies for gravity wave detection BepiColombo (2017) a satellite duo exploring Mercury (with JAXA) Cheops (2017) studying exoplanets around nearby bright stars Solar Orbiter (2018) studying the Sun from close range

COSMIC VISION ESA’s long-term scientific programme is based on a vision. The ‘Cosmic Vision’ looks for answers to mankind's fundamental questions: How did we get from the 'Big Bang' to where we are now? Where did life come from? Are we alone? New challenging ESA missions will see probes at Jupiter and its moons, studying exoplanets and investigating dark matter and dark energy.

UPCOMING MISSIONS (2) James Webb Space Telescope (2018) studying the very distant Universe (with NASA/CSA) Euclid (2020) probing ‘dark matter’, ‘dark energy’ and the expanding Universe JUICE (2022) studying the ocean-bearing moons around Jupiter Plato (2024) searching for planets around distant stars Athena (2028) space telescope for studying the energetic Universe

ROBOTIC EXPLORATION In cooperation with Roscosmos (Russia), two ExoMars missions (2016 and 2018) will investigate the Martian environment, Particularly astro-biological issues, and develop and demonstrate new technologies for planetary exploration with the long-term view of a future Mars sample return mission.

EXOMARS ESA will provide the Trace Gas Orbiter and the Entry, Descent and Landing Demonstrator Module in 2016, and the carrier and ExoMars rover in 2018. Roscosmos will be responsible for the 2018 descent module and surface platform, and will provide launchers for both missions. Both partners will supply scientific instruments and will cooperate closely in the scientific exploitation of the missions.

Other Space Research Domains Fundamental Physics – Gravitational waves, Space Test Equivalence Principle, Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Earth Observation – analogous to remote sensing of other planets! Telecommunications and Navigation Space Situational Awareness (debris, cosmic impacts) Security, GMES Launchers

EARTH OBSERVATION

PIONEERS IN EARTH OBSERVATION Meteosat (1977– ) ESA has been dedicated to observing Earth from space ever since the launch of its first meteorological mission. ERS-1 (1991–2000) and ERS-2 (1995–2011) providing a wealth of invaluable data about Earth, its climate and changing environment. Envisat (2002–12) the largest satellite ever built to monitor the environment, it provided continuous observation of Earth’s surface, atmosphere, oceans and ice caps.

EARTH EXPLORERS Addressing critical and specific issues raised by the science community, while demonstrating latest observing techniques: GOCE (2009–13) studying Earth’s gravity field SMOS (2009– ) studying Earth’s water cycle CryoSat-2 (2010– ) studying Earth’s ice cover Swarm (2013– ) three satellites studying Earth’s magnetic field ADM-Aeolus (2016) studying global winds EarthCARE (2018) studying Earth’s clouds, aerosols and radiation (ESA/JAXA) Biomass (2020– ) studying Earth’s carbon cycle

METEOROLOGICAL MISSIONS Next-generation missions dedicated to weather and climate: Meteosat Third Generation – taking over from Meteosat 11 in 2018/20, the last of four Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) satellites. MSG and MTG are joint projects between ESA and Eumetsat. MetOp is a series of three satellites to monitor climate and improve weather forecasting, the space segment of Eumetsat’s Polar System (EPS). MetOp-A (2006– ) Europe’s first polar-orbiting satellite dedicated to operational meteorology. MetOp-B launched in 2012. MetOp-C follows in 2018.

GLOBAL MONITORING FOR A SAFER WORLD Copernicus: an Earth observation programme for global monitoring for environment and security. Led by the European Commission in partnership with ESA and the European Environment Agency, and responding to Europe’s need for geo-spatial information services, it will provide autonomous and independent access to information for policy-makers, particularly for environment and security issues. ESA is implementing the space component: developing the Sentinel satellite series, its ground segment and coordinating data access. ESA has started a Climate Change Initiative, for storage, production and assessment of essential climate data.

ESA Cosmic Visions Successor of Horizon 2000 Plus (GAIA, BepiColombo, JWST) Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 is the current cycle of ESA's long-term planning for space science missions. Latest in a series of mechanisms for implementing ESA's science missions; provides the stability needed for activities which typically take over two decades to go from initial concept to the production of scientific results. Large Missions 1Bn€ JUICE – Jovian Moons 2022, ATHENA – X-ray observatory 2028 Medium Missions 400-600M€ Solar Orbiter, Euclid (Dark Energy), Plato (Exoplanets) Small Missions CHEOPS, SMILE, Missions Opportunity

Solar System Exploration Solar physics, influence of the sun on environment and space weather Magnetospheric fields and interactions with solar magnetic field History and construction of the solar system Origin and evolution of moons Evolution of solar system (impact history) Water distribution, sub-surface oceans (Europa, Ganymede) Atmosphere runaway greenhouse effect (Venus)

Astronomy from Space

Why observe from space? Absorption Scattering Seeing The atmosphere opaque to all but some radio and light in the optical window. (390 nm – 780 nm); IR suffers absorption from H2O and CO2 (21 µm to 1 mm); UV absorbed by O3. Gas atoms and molecules absorb X-rays and γ-rays. Scattering Scattering of light is strongest when the λ of the light is ~ diameter of the scattering particles. Visible light more readily scattered by dust and mist than IR. ( car headlights in fog ) Try experimenting with IR TV remote control with water bag or chalk clouds Seeing Variations in density of the atmosphere in a line of sight cause intensity fluctuations. The variations in the refractive index of a cell of air above a telescope will alter the apparent position of an object, normally over a range of a few arcseconds. (distinguish between a star and a planet merely by observing Stars “twinkle” more than the bright planets)

M31 – a different view Combined images from Herschel and XMM-Newton offer a comprehensive view of stellar evolution in Andromeda galaxy. Highlights the stars that once were, in the X-rays, and the stars that will be, in the far-infrared Describes history of star formation within Andromeda, from the cold material where stars are born all the way to the remnants of stellar demises which, in turn, influence the ISM and contribute to shape the birth of future generations of stars.

THE EUROPEAN LAUNCHER FAMILY The launchers developed by ESA guarantee European access to space. Their development is an example of how space challenges European industry and provides precious expertise. Ariane is one of the most successful launcher series in the world, now complemented by Vega and Soyuz, launched from Europe’s Spaceport in French Guiana.

Launch Launch phase lasts only few hundred seconds but severe environment, e.g. Axial acceleration from the rocket of several g Shock from separation of stages or fairing ~1000g @ ~1kHz Acoustic and temperature load via the thin fairing ~ 135 dB And ~100 C Rapid venting from pressure changes But have to analyse the coupled system of the rocket and payload

Mass is Critical $10 000 /kg to LEO $ 20 000 / kg to GTO Science payload ~20% of the satellite For Mars landing, need to reduce velocity of 6km/s transfer, through an atmosphere 1% of Earth’s – major limitation to mass that can safely be landed JUICE – 100 kg science payload 1.8tonne dry spacecraft 2.8 tonne propellant

Space Environment Thermal – irradiation of 1.4kWm-2 near Earth, dissipation of payload power, eclipses in LEO, operational power cycles Radiation – Solar flares or charged particle belts, e.g. 100krads ionising behind few mm Al Non-ionising displacement damage (protons) Soft event upsets “Advanced” electronics susceptible !

Qualification and testing One-off payload designs for science instruments Component choices, environmental design, testing and qualification Many review cycles and model phases ESA payloads provided by additional Member State funding and tendency to require high “Technology Readiness Level” before mission is “adopted” to avoid late costly design evolution 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Phase A Phase B Phase C/D Operations PRR SRR CDR QR FAR

Processing Power LEON is a 32-bit CPU microprocessor core, based on the SPARC-V8 RISC architecture and instruction set. It was originally designed by the European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC) 2009 LEON2-FT chip (0.2 micron process, 100MIPS / 20MFLOP) ran the flight computer of ESA’s Proba-2 microsatellite, a technology demonstration mission For comparison 1998/99 Pentium II/III desktop CPU in terms of feature size and power

Data Operations Data transmission bandwidth limited (e.g. Mars 100kbps > 1Gb/day) Rosetta – transmits 500W at 2.7Au: means we receive ~10-23 W. With large dish and cryo electronics detect ~fW so thousands times weaker than mobile phone! 30kbps, so need careful planning of data use by instrument suite (esp. for images etc..) Steerable antenna OR repoint the satellite

SCIENCE OPERATIONS ESAC (near Madrid, Spain) is ESA’s centre for science operations ESAC hosts ESA’s Science Operation Centre (SOC) for all ESA astronomy and Solar System missions. Science operations include the interface with scientific users, mission planning, payload operations and data acquisition, processing, distribution and archiving. The scientific archives for the majority of ESA’s science missions are kept here so that researchers have a single ‘entry point’ for accessing the wealth of scientific data.

Scheduling and Mission Planning Astronomy missions with up to kseconds exposures can be planned easily in advance (celestial viewing constraints)

Planetary Imaging Fly-by planetary operations require robust autonomy – planning for sequences of targeted slewed pointings, estimate data rates, unknown orbital elements Transmission round trip (Jupiter 1 hour @ closest) Cruise duration up to 8 years – how to keep skilled operations team in place

Rosetta Challenges Low light level conditions – probe put into hibernation Robust timer for “wake-up” Unknown comet mass and size – had to learn how to navigate and “orbit” Unknown properties of comet surface for landing (that’s why we go there!) Design and develop instruments for broad science investigations with unknown target properties Pre-planning safe spacecraft operations months ahead is orthogonal to conducting flexible science instrument activities

Philae Landing

In the shadow of a cliff?

Jupiter Icy Moons Mission - Insertion 2.8 tonnes propellants Solar cells: cold and intense radiation, ~10-20 W m-2 72m2 of arrays

Jupiter Icy Moons Mission - Encounters Fly-by and gravity assist maneuvers at Europa and Callisto

Jupiter Icy Moons Mission - Inclination For final mission phase, pump up inclination for high latitude observations by gravity assist

Technology Harmonisation Across Research Domains There are attempts to harmonise approaches across domains, and between ESA and member states Tends to be bureaucratic and slow to respond Comparing even optical and IR sensors between astronomy and Earth Observation reveal huge difference in requirements Dynamic ranges, temporal response, Earth Observations tending towards continued presence of standard reference instrumentation set to utilise reference baselines Science domains change in response to new paradigms (e.g. Dark Energy, exo-planets)