Theories of Language Acquisition Lecture VII

Explaining Second Language Learning The behaviourist perspective The innatist perspective Krashen’s Monitor Model The cognitive perspective The competition model Language and the brain The interaction hypothesis The noticing hypothesis The sociocultural perspective

The behaviourist perspective Nelson Brooks and Robert Lado – proponents in 1960s Skinner suggested that the same process happens in L2 learning Classroom activities focused on mimicry and memorization A L2 learner to start L2 learning based on habits formed in the L1 Often linked to the contrastive analysis hypothesis Many errors made are not predictable based on the comparison to the L1 and L2 Behaviourism & the contrastive analysis hypothesis qualified as inadequate explanations for SL acquisition by 1970s

The innatist perspective No claims by Chomsky on the implication of his theory for L2 learning Lydia White claims that the UG is the best perspective to understand L2 acquisition Others have claimed that UG does not offer a good explanation for the L2 acquisition, esp. by learners who have passed the CPH Vivian Cook claims that a more general explanation is required as learners know more about the language Bonnie Schartz claims that language acquisition is based on the availability of natural language in the learner’s environments The emphasis of UG perspective researchers on language competence in terms of complex grammar

Krashan's monitor model (1982) It is the best known model of L2 acquisition influenced by Chomsky’s theory of L1 acquisition Five hypotheses describe the model: Acquisition/learning hypothesis – language is acquired through exposing to samples of languages that we understand with no conscious attention to the form. We learn consciously paying attention to forms and rules 2. Monitor hypothesis – L2 users edit, monitor and polish the rules and patterns that have been learned. Monitoring takes place when there is plenty of time and the learner wants to produce correct language. The learned system acts as a monitor.

Kashan's monitor model 3. The natural order hypothesis – L2 acquisition develops in predictable sequences similar to L1 acquisition. The language rules that are the easiest to state are not necessarily acquired the first. Ex. Third person singular -s 4. The comprehensible input hypothesis – acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is comprehensible and contains i + 1 (i the level of language and 1 the language that is one step beyond that level) 5. Affective filter hypothesis – the affective filter is a metaphorical barrier that prevents learners from acquiring the language when the input is available. ‘Affect’ refers to feelings of anxiety, or negative attitudes which results in poor learning

The cognitive perspective Cognitive psychology active since 1990s The use of the computer as a metaphor for the mind to compare language acquisition to the capacities of computers for storing, integrating and retrieving information Cognitive psychologists claim that there is no need to hypothesize that humans have a language-specific module in the brain They claim that general theories of learning can account for the gradual development of the language Innatist perspective works for L1 acquisition but not for L2 acquisition Perception, memory, categorization and generalization processes work best in L2 acquistion

Information processing Knowledge is built up and can be retrieved automatically Initially learners to concentrate on aspects of language Later information processing becomes increasingly automatic Language learning as ”skill learning” Most learning starts with declarative knowledge which is the knowledge that we are aware of having Restructuring is the qualitative change in the learner’s knowledge It is the burst of progress with no instruction or by being exposed to the language It may also result in backsliding if the learner has incorporated two much or the wrong things

The competition model Described as an explanation to both L1 and L2 acquisition that takes into account not only language form but language meaning and language use too Through plenty of exposure to the language samples learners understand how to use the ”cues” that signal specific functions, i.e. words in a sentence and animacy This helps you get the meaning of unknown words Ex. The boy pushed the box The box pushed the boy

The cognitive perspective The cognitive perspective emphasizes the role of general human abilities to process and learn information on the basis of experience

Language and the brain Are L1 and L2 languages acquired and represented in the same areas of the brain? Does the brain process L2 language input differently from L1 input? The assumption that the language functions were located in the left hemisphere of the brain Recent studies suggest activation if different locations for L1 and L2 There are differences observed depending on the learners’ age and the level of proficiency This is a young discipline of linguistics and the research has produces mixed findings

The interaction hypothesis Conversational interaction is an essential criterion for L2 acquisition Native speakers modify their speech and their interaction patterns in order to help learners participate in conversations Krashen & Long (1983): comprehensible input is necessary for L2 acquisition Input can be comprehensible through modified interaction Opportunities for learners to interact with other speakers Modified interaction includes elaboration, slower speech rate, gesture, ex. comprehension checks, clarifications requests Merrill Swain’s comprehensible output hypothesis – speakers must produce language that their interlocutors can understand Pushing learners ahead in their development

The noticing hypothesis Proposed by Richard Schmidt (1990, 2001) Nothing is learned unless it is noticed Learners should become aware of a particular language feature as comprehensible input does not lead to language development Information processing theories claim that anything that uses the mental processing space contributes to learning According to the usage-based perspective, the best learning takes place by the frequency with which something is available for processing, not by the learners’ awareness of something in the input

The sociocultural hypothesis The cognitive and language development arise as a result of social interactions The sociocultural theory views speaking and thinking as tightly interwoven Speaking activates thinking and people gain control over their mental processes as a result of internalizing of what people say to you and what you say to them The internalizing occurs when an individual interacts with an interlocutor within his or her zone of proximal development (ZDP) Is ZDP the same as Krashen’s i +1?