Here is a real persons brain Trying to understand this a difficult task and the first thing scientists start to do is to try and classify and order things - the hope being that you can assign a function to each anatomical part. Sometimes it works and sometimes it doesn’t, but it is the first step in cutting things down to a manageable size. What you can note from this is that it is wrapped in cling-film = meninges = 3 membranes - they are filled with cerebrospinal fluid which keeps the brain floating and protects it. Bleeding within these membranes squashes the brain and damages it. From this angle (about here) you can see a clearly distinct bit down the back called the cerebellum - concerned with storing patterned movements. You can’t see so clearly from this angle but it is spilt into two halves, hence two hemispheres. Up front is the cerebral cortex or cerebral hemispheres. See how it is all folded - probably a cunning device to pack more cells in - lower animals have a much smoother cortex. The valleys are called sulci (or a sulcus) and the hills are called gyri (or a gyrus). You can just see the start of a massive sulcus here dividing it into two hemispheres. Lateral fissure giving you a temporal lobe, and the eye of faith gives you frontal, parietal and occipital as well (all named after bones).

Figure 2.8: The Size of the Cerebral Cortex in Humans and Other Animals

But here is a real one.

Midline Brain View Lower Level Brain Structures- oldest part of the brain 3 major Brain Stem Structures: Pons Medulla Reticular Formation

Hindbrain 1.Medulla oblongata- control breathing, heart rate, blood pressure… 2.Pons- “bridge” connects the forebrain to the midbrain; bundle of nerves pass through it Transmits info about body movement& involved in functions related to sleep, alertness and respiration Anesthesia has an affect on this part of the brain ‘A blow to the pons puts you out’

3. Cerebellum- balance and controlling motor activity

RAS (reticular activating system) Attention, sleep and arousal A network of nerves Cocktail party phenomenon- you’re in a large noisy crowd but you are able to hear and important sound like your name from a distance Filters out imp stimulus while ignoring other irrelevant sounds. Involved in eye movement, hearing and reflexes.

Midline Brain View Corpus Callosum – connects 2 brain hemispheres Thalamus Sensory relay area Hypo- Thalamus 3 F’s… Feeding, Fleeing, Fighting & Mating Cere- Bellum - Smoothes movements

Forebrain Thalamus- relay station for incoming sensory stimulation and transmits it to the cerebral c cortex for interpretation. Basal ganglia- voluntary movements walking, talking Hypothalamus-regulates body temp. appetite, maturation and emotion. control pituitary and autonomic division. Body’s pleasure center

Limbic System- Involved in memory, emotion, hunger, sex and aggression Hippocampus- formation of memories of information, like reading writing Does the info stay here? Case study H.M. Amygdala-evaluates incoming info like faces , voices, and forms emotional responses for the situation. Study- Psychic blindness- lesions to the amygdala of monkeys

the cerebral cortex...

Structure relates to function? Frontal lobe Temporal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Structure relates to function? You can see it rather better on this gentleman who has bought a set of highlighters and coloured is lobes in. Frontal = red, temporal = purple, parietal = green, occipital = brown To some extent this theory of function following structure works. Largely determined from post mortems from people who have had a stoke or other damage to a specific region of brain and lost specific functions. eg auditory is temporal (1), vision is in the occipital lobe (2), somatic sensory is at the back of the frontal lobe (3), and the motor control is just in front of it. This is Pocock & Richards diagram of it.

Membrane = Meninges Central sulcus Gyrus Gyrus Frontal Parietal lobe Occipital lobe You can’t read it but these are the ones I want you to know - a ridge is a gyrus a valley is a sulcus, they divide it into frontal lobe temporal lobe occipital lobe parietal lobe which relate to function (a bit - Gernot revisists this in lecture 18/19) the whole thing is wrapped in 3 membranes = meninges - to support and protect Cerebellum Temporal lobe

Brain has 2 Hemispheres Left & Right sides are separate Corpus Callosum : major pathway between hemispheres Some functions are ‘lateralized’ Math, language on left ART , music on right Lateralization is never 100% Left Hemisphere Corpus Callosum Right key words: left hemisphere; right hemisphere

Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes Frontal Parietal Occipital Temporal key words: cerebral cortex; lobes; frontal; parietal; temporal; occipital

4 lobes of the cerebral cortex – Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal (F-POT) Frontal Lobes: Motor Control, Speech Production, Higher Functions Broca’s Area

Frontal Lobe Motor cortex is found in the frontal lobe Motor cortex is represented by the upside-down homonculus The body parts that are moved with more precision are larger in the homonculs ex: the fingers Association areas: Speech, thinking, memory, emotion, personality

4 lobes of the cerebral cortex – Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal (F-POT)

Parietal Lobe Somatosensory cortex is found here Bodily senses, touch, pain temperature Upside down homonculus man with most sensitive areas enlarged ex: lips

Contralateral Motor Control Movements controled by motor area Right hemisphere controls left side of body Left hemisphere controls right side Motor nerves cross sides in spinal cord Somatosensory Cortex Motor Cortex

Homonculus “Little Man”

Sensory Information sent to opposite hemisphere Left visual field Right visual Optic nerves Corpus Callosum Left Visual Cortex Right Visual Principle is Contralateral Organization Sensory data crosses over in pathways leading to the cortex Visual Crossover left visual field to right hemisphere right field to left Other senses similar key words: left hemisphere; right hemisphere; visual infomation; touch information

Temporal Lobe Auditory cortex processes sounds of particular frequencies, speech Wernicke area

Occipital Lobes

Corpus Callosum Major ( but not only) pathway between sides Connects comparable structures on each side Permits data received on one side to be processed in both hemispheres Aids motor coordination of left and right side Corpus Callosum Medial surface of right hemisphere Example : You read a geometry problem in a textbook. The words are seen and the visual forms translated into meaning by the language center in the left hemisphere. To solve the problem you have to imagine a cone shaped object. This is accomplished by centers in the right hemisphere. The solution is written down using language generated by the left hemisphere. What would happen in cases like this if the callosum was damaged ?

Corpus Callosum What happens when the corpus callosum is cut? Sensory inputs are still crossed Motor outputs are still crossed Hemispheres can’t exchange data key words: left hemisphere; right hemisphere; corpus callosum; epilepsy One method used to treat severely epileptic patients involves cutting the corpus callosum to prevent the spread of seizures acorss the entire brain. The video clip on this slide shows a man who has had such a surgery. Double click on video to start video clip. This clip discusses the types of information processing deficits associated with cutting the corpus callosum and shows a task often used to assess corpus callosum damage. This task is also represented in drawing form on the following slide as well.

The ‘Split Brain’ studies Surgery for epilepsy : cut the corpus callosum Roger Sperry, 1960’s Special apparatus picture input to just one side of brain screen blocks objects on table from view Nonverbal right hemisphere Verbal left key words: left hemisphere; right hemisphere; corpus callosum; epilepsy This slide is a schematic of the task shown in the video clip on the previous slide

The ‘Split Brain’ studies I saw an apple. “What did you see?” Nonverbal right hemisphere Verbal left Nonverbal right hemisphere Verbal left ?? “What did you see?” “Using your left hand, Pick up what you saw.” Picture to right brain can’t name the object left hand can identify by touch Picture to left brain can name the object left hand cannot identify by touch

Localization of function Frontal Parietal Occipital Temporal key words: cerebral cortex; lobes; frontal; parietal; temporal; occipital

Occipital Lobe Input from Optic nerve Contains primary visual cortex most is on surface inside central fissure Outputs to parietal and temporal lobes Occipital Lobe Visual Lobe

Temporal Lobe Contains primary auditory cortex Inputs are auditory, visual patterns speech recognition face recognition word recognition memory formation Outputs to limbic System, basal Ganglia, and brainstem Temporal Lobe

Parietal Lobe hand-eye coordination eye movements attention Inputs from multiple senses contains primary somatosensory cortex Somatosensory Cortex Parietal Lobe Outputs to Frontal lobe hand-eye coordination eye movements attention

Frontal Lobe Contains primary motor cortex No direct sensory input Working Memory Motor Cortex Broca’s Area Contains primary motor cortex No direct sensory input Important planning and sequencing areas Broca’s area for speech key words: cerebral cortex; lobes; frontal; motor functions Frontal lobe is not directly involved in sensation or perception. Its functions are related to motor action (behavior). The motor cortex is the start of nerves that run through the spinal cord to the muscles. Broca’s area organizes sequences of speech movements. Damage leads to productive aphasia Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex is important in working memory. WM is short term memory for information needed to maintain a context, to prepare for the next step in a sequence of thought, and /or to inhibit irrelevant responses The wisconsin card sorting task illustrates the importance of working memory in maintaining context and inhibiting irrelevant responses Prefrontal area for working memory

Lobe Disorders Frontal Lobe Broca’s area productive aphasia- no fluent speech, speak in text speech Temporal Lobe Wernickie’s area- difficulty in understanding which words to use correctly This is a segment of a pegment key words: cerebral cortex; lobes; frontal; motor functions

Brain Plasticity- The ability of the neurons to create new synapses and to change the strength of synapses. Neurons can change their function or they sprout axons.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task Row of 4 example cards set out Patient is given a deck of 64 different cards Told to place each card under the one it best matches key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective). In the WCST after the patient has figured out the rule (e.g. color) the examiner switches to a new rule (e.g. shape or number). Frontal patients make errors after a rule switch for a longer time than normals, because they perseverate on (fail to inhibit) the old rule. Told correct or incorrect after each card Correct! Must deduce what the underlying rule is.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task These slides are set up in the following manner: Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct." Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards. Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies. People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy. Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective). These slides are set up in the following manner: Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct." Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards. Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies. People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy. Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective). These slides are set up in the following manner: Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct." Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards. Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies. People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy. Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective). These slides are set up in the following manner: Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct." Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards. Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies. People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy. Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective). These slides are set up in the following manner: Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct." Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards. Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies. People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy. Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task key words: frontal lobe; perseverence; Wisconsin Card Sorting task * Note: this slide also has an additional "home" action button. If you click on this, you can go back to the first WCST slide and continue on with the task. This slide and the following Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) slides give an example of one of the types of deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe damage. Frontal lobe patients often have problems with perseverance (e.g. switching strategies when an old strategy is ineffective). These slides are set up in the following manner: Hit enter once and a row of 4 cards will appear. The cards differ in terms of color, shape and number of the objects on the card. Beforehand, the instructor should select the strategy they want the student to pick (i.e. the correct card is the red card; or the correct card in the one with four objects; or the correct card is the one with the circles on it). The instructor should tell the student to pick the card that is correct. Do not tell the students the strategy you are using or even that there is a strategy. Just say " I want you to tell me which card is correct." Based on their response, you tell them whether they were right or wrong. After they make one response and give them feedback (whether they were correct or incorrect), hit enter again and the next trial will start and a new set of four cards will appear. Repeat the same process as with the first set of cards. Eventually the student will pick up on the strategy you are using and will start to get them correct. After the student gets 4 in a row correct, switch strategies (i.e. if the student previously had to pick the card with red objects, now he may have to pick the card with only two objects on it.) The strategy you switch to should be one of the parameters on the card from the previous trial. That is, if the correct card in the previous trial had 2 red circles and your strategy was red objects, now your new strategy on the next card should be either circles or the card with 2 objects. Note how long it takes for the student to catch on and switch strategies. People with frontal lobe damage will take much longer to switch to a new strategy. Actions buttons are located on top of each slide. If you choose not to do the WCST or want to get out of it, just click on the arrow button and you will move ot the next lobe of the brain.

Experimental Methods Lesioning Electrical recording Electrical stimulation

Recording and Imaging Techniques EEG (electroencephalograph) CT (computed tomography) scan PET (positron emission tomography) scan MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) fMRI (functional MRI)

Lesion studies: a brain region is destroyed and behavior is observed Studying the Brain Lesion studies: a brain region is destroyed and behavior is observed Lesions of hypothalamus in animals ---> overeating Strokes interrupt blood flow in brain ---> damage brain

Studying the Brain Electrical Recording: overall brain wave activity monitored by electroencephalograph (EEG) Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB)

Studying the Brain Imaging techniques allow the living brain to be studied for its activity during behavior CT scans (computed tomography) used to detect brain structure abnormalities in people w/ mental illness left temporal tumor meningitis

Studying the Brain PET scans use radioactive glucose to assess brain activity Control Ecstasy User

MRI for Face Recognition in Normal Volunteer > Studying the Brain MRI Scan of Tumor in Speech Center MRI scans generate 3D views of the human brain fMRI – faster version of MRI MRI for Face Recognition in Normal Volunteer >

The Nervous System: Summary Major structures of the nervous CNS, Somatic, Autonomic Two hemispheres & 4 lobes Organization contralateral input & output primary sensory areas motor areas Commissure Localization of functions Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System