BIOCHEMICAL MOLECULES

Synthesis and Hydrolysis The most important biological compounds are polymers Polymers (poly = many) The polymers are: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids (fats), and nucleic acids (DNA/RNA). A polymer is made up of a chain of many monomers linked together

Synthesis and Hydrolysis MONOMERS (mono = one) Monomers are: amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, and nucleotides. These are made (dehydration synthesis) or broken down (hydrolysis) over and over in living cells.

Large polymers are also called _______________ macromolecules Large polymers are also called _______________ Macromolecules are formed by _________________, usually by reactions involving the loss of water = ________________________. joining monomers DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS ____________ are joined together during dehydration synthesis. MONOMERS Chains of monomers are called _________ POLYMERS Note: enzymes that speed up dehydration synthesis reactions are called _____________. dehydrogenases

HYDROLYSIS HYDROLYSIS The breaking of a polymer into units is ______________ (i.e. done by adding water to polymer). Note: enzymes that speed up hydrolysis reactions are called __________ hydrolases

HYDROLYSIS ANIMATIONS DEHYDRATION SYNTHSIS and HYDROLYSIS ANIMATIONS http://science.nhmccd.edu/biol/dehydrat/dehydrat.html

Monomers (sub units) Polymers

Polymers a) b) c) d)

Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)

Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis

Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis H2O & Energy

Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis Monomers a) b) c) d) H2O & Energy

Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H2O & Energy

Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) H2O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) d) H2O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) d) H2O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) d) H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) H2O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) d) H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) H2O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) H2O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) H2O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) H2O & Energy These reactions require: 1. Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) H2O & Energy These reactions require: ATP energy Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) H2O & Energy These reactions require: ATP energy Water Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H2O & Energy

Dehydration Synthesis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) H2O & Energy These reactions require: ATP energy Water Enzymes Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H2O & Energy

CARBOHYDRATES Where does the name come from? (CH20)3 = C3H603 Hydrated Carbons: (CH20)n Carbohydrates have the empirical formula of (CH20)n where n = the # of times the chain is repeated. The carbons, hydrogens and oxygens are found in the ratio of 1:2:1 and are made up of a repeating chain of sugars. Sugars are also known as saccarides. Carbohydrates usually end in ‘ose’. Can you think of any examples? (CH20)3 = C3H603 (CH20)6 = C6H1206

CARBOHYDRATES: monosaccharides The basic sugar molecule is GLUCOSE: C6 H12 O6. Glucose has a ring structure. Other monosaccharides include fructose, ribose, deoxyribose

Fructose Glucose 6 sided = HEXOSE 5 sided = PENTOSE C6 H12 O6 ISOMERS C6 H12 O6 C6 H12 O6

CARBOHYDRATES: disaccharides When two sugars bind together via DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS a disaccharide is formed.

CARBOHYDRATES: disaccharides glucose + glucose forms the sugar maltose glucose + fructose forms the sugar sucrose galactose + glucose forms the sugar lactose

CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides When many sugars bind together via dehydration synthesis four types of polysaccharides may be formed: Starch Glycogen Cellulose Chitin

CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides CELLULOSE The cell walls of plants are made of cellulose They are long chains of glucose molecules with no side chains. The linkage between the Carbon atoms of the sugars is different than starch and glycogen No mammal can break this bond 5. This is why we cannot digest cellulose = FIBRE.

CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides STARCH Plants store their energy as starch Starch is made up of many glucose molecules linked together Starch has few side chains

CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides GLYCOGEN Animals store their energy (extra glucose) as glycogen We store glycogen in our liver and muscles Glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules linked together Glycogen has many side chains

CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides CHITIN Made by animals and fungi Long glucose chains linked with covalent bonds. Very strong Makes structures like exo-skeletons, fingernails, claws, and beaks

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF CARBS Energy: when the bonds between Carbon atoms are broken, the energy released can be used by cells. Carbohydrates are the primary energy molecules for all life. 2. Structural: Cellulose is the major structural compound in plants (is used in the cell wall).

LIPIDS Lipids are made up of the elements C,H,O but in no set ratio. Lipids are large molecules that are insoluble in water.

Synthesis of a FAT animation: http://www2.nl.edu/jste/lipids.htm

Neutral Fats: Triglycerides Composed of 3 fatty acids bonded to 1 glycerol. Fatty acids contain a long chain of 16-18 Carbons with an acid end. Glycerol is a small 3 Carbon chain with 3 alcohol (OH) groups These two molecules bind together via dehydration synthesis

There are 2 Types of Triglycerides 1. Saturated fats: There are no double bonds in the carbon chains of the fatty acids. The carbons are filled with hydrogens. Unhealthy. They mostly come from animals. Become solid at room temperature. Examples: lard, butter, animal fats…

There are 2 Types of Triglycerides 2. Unsaturated fats: There are one (monounsaturated) or more double bonds (polyunsaturated). Mostly come from plants. They are liquid at room temperature. Healthy Examples: olive oil, corn oil, palm oil…

Phospholipids Are used to make up the two layered cell membrane of all cells. In phospholipids, the third fatty acid group of a triglyceride is replaced by an inorganic phosphate group (PO43-).

Phospholipids This creates a polar end: The phosphate end is water soluble (hydrophilic) The fatty acid is not water soluble (hydrophobic)

hydrophilic hydrophobic

Steroids Steroids structurally look very different from lipids, but are also water insoluble. They are made up of 4 Carbon ring molecules fused together. Examples: testosterone, estrogen, cholesterol, and vitamin D. Used as sex hormones

Steroids

Uses of Lipids Long term storage for energy (more efficient spacewise than glycogen or starch). Insulation and protection in animals Making some hormones (steroids) Structure of cell membranes. Without lipids, we would have no cells.

Essential Omega-3 Fats Found in fish and leafy vegetables Other foods are now offering omega-3’s (eggs, cereals, margarine…) Help to reduce cancer Helps with vision Helps us think better

Trans Fats Scientific evidence has shown that dietary saturated and trans fats can increase your risk of developing heart disease.

Proteins Proteins are made up of the elements C,H,O, and N (but in no set ratio). Proteins are chains of Amino Acids (usually 75 or more) that bond together via dehydration synthesis. 40% of the average human body is made up of protein.

Proteins The building blocks of Proteins are amino acids. There are three parts to an amino acids: Amino Group (NH2 or NH3+) acts as a base (accepts H+) Carboxyl Group (COOH or COO-) acts as an acid (donates H+) R Group: there are 20 different possible R groups

20 Different Amino Acids

Proteins Amino acids bond together via dehydration synthesis. The amino acids bind together with a peptide bond. The PEPTIDE bond is formed between C and N and one water is lost (dehydration synthesis).

Proteins When the original two amino acids form the beginning of the chain (with one peptide bond) it is called a DIPEPTIDE.

Proteins Then the chain grows to become a TRIPEPTIDE.

Proteins Ultimately you end up with a POLYPEPTIDE (which can have anywhere between 30 and 30,000 amino acids). Another name for a polypeptide is protein.

Proteins Every protein is different because the ORDER of amino acids is different. The chains come together differently due to the order of the different R groups and how they bond together. This structural difference also makes the polypeptides (proteins) functionally different.

Levels of Protein Structure primary structure: 1 This is the first level of how proteins are formed. It is simply the order of amino acids joined together with peptide bonds. It is the amino acid sequence that determines the nature and chemistry of the protein. If you change the order of amino acids, the protein may not be able to do its job.

Levels of Protein Structure secondary structure: 2 This is the second step in the formation of a protein. When a peptide bond is formed, a double bonded oxygen is left over, which is partially negative (the carboxyl group: COO-). It is attracted to the positive NH3+ amino group from other amino acids in the chain. This attraction forms a HYDROGEN BOND. This causes the chain to twist into either a spiral called an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet.

Levels of Protein Structure tertiary structure: 3 The next interactions take place between the R groups. Some R groups are reactive and will interact with other reactive R groups in the chain. These are the amino acids that are either charged or that have a sulphur atom. The interactions ( + and – attractions and S-S bridges) will fold the molecule over into a highly specific 3-dimensional shape. It is the 3-D shape that will determine the protein’s job or role in the body.

Charged amino acids

Amino Acids with Sulphur groups

Neutral Amino Acids

Levels of Protein Structure quaternary structure: 4 The last level in protein formation is not seen in all proteins. However, some proteins are actually 2 or more molecules joined to form a functional protein. They are held together with an ionic bond. Two examples: Insulin has 2 subunits Hemoglobin has 4 subunits.

hemoglobin insulin

The Whole Process Peptide Bonds Hydrogen Bonds Interactions between R groups Ionic Bonds

Denaturation The final shape of a protein (its tertiary or quaternary structure) is very specific and enables it to do its job/function. Any change in a proteins’ shape will affect its function. Denaturation is when a protein's tertiary structure is lost. This happens when the bonds between the R groups are broken. When a protein is denatured, the protein can’t do its job and becomes useless.

Denaturation Temperature: How can this happen? There are three common ways: Temperature: High temperatures affect the weak Hydrogen bonds and can distort or break them, thus changing the structural shape. A slight increase in temperature an cause a reversible change (ie: fever). A high temperature increase can cause an irreversible change (ie: cooking an egg).

Denaturation 2. Chemicals: How can this happen? There are three common ways: 2. Chemicals: Heavy metals such as lead and mercury are large atoms that are attracted the R groups of amino acids. They bond to the R group and distort the protein’s shape. This is usually irreversible (they usually don’t want to ‘let go’).

Denaturation pH: How can this happen? There are three common ways: As some of the R groups are acids and some are bases, every protein (enzyme) has a preferred pH. Any change in pH causes a change in the acid-base R group interactions and this will change the shape of the protein.

Functions of Proteins 1. Structural: proteins help make up all structures in living things Actin & Myosin: muscle proteins Collagen: bones, teeth, cartilage, tendon, ligament, blood vessels, skin matrix Keratin: nails, hair, horns, feathers

Functions of Proteins 2. Functional: other proteins help us to keep our bodies functioning properly and to digest our food. Enzymes: are proteins that are catalysts which speed up reactions and control all cell activities. Hemoglobin

Functions of Proteins Food Source: once we have used up all of our carbohydrates and fats, proteins will be used for energy. Proteins are worth the least amount of energy per gram. Anorexia and Bolimia

Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are acidic molecules that are found in the nucleus of cells. There are two types, both of which are very LARGE. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid RNA: Ribonucleic Acid

Nucleic Acids All nucleic acids are composed of units called NUCLEOTIDES, which are composed of three sub-molecules: 1. Pentose Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) 2. Phosphate 3. Nitrogen Base (purine or pyrimidine)

Nucleic Acids They are formed by joining their subunits together via dehydration synthesis (nucleotide + nucleotide … = nucleic acid). This is quite a complex process to which we will devote an entire unit to.

nitrogen base: purines Nucleic Acids nitrogen base: purines Adenine and Guanine Have two rings Found in both DNA and RNA Memory Trick: It’s Got 2 Be GAP

nitrogen base: pyrimidines Nucleic Acids nitrogen base: pyrimidines Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil Have only one ring Cytosine is in both DNA and RNA Thymine is in DNA only Uracil is in RNA only Uracil Memory Trick: CUT the Pyramid

Deoxyribonucleic Acid Structure of DNA: DNA is composed of two complimentary strands of nucleotides. The two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds which form between complimentary nitrogen bases: Adenine with Thymine (A-T or T-A) They join with 2 hydrogen bonds Cytosine with Guanine (C-G or G-C) They join with 3 hydrogen bonds

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Deoxyribonucleic Acid When DNA is first made, it is just two linear strands of nucleotides joined together. Due to internal bonding, the DNA molecule then forms into a double helix (twisted ladder).

Functions of DNA Directs and controls all cell activities by making all of the proteins and enzymes b) Contains all of the genetic information necessary to make one complete organism of very exact specifications

Ribonucleic Acid RNA is made by DNA. It is not confined to the nucleus, it moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm of the cell. It has Ribose sugar instead of Deoxyribose. It has no thymines, and uses URACIL’s instead. It is single stranded and therefore, no helix is formed. There are 3 types of RNA. The function of RNA is to assist DNA in making proteins.

A Comparison

Found in the nucleus only Found in the nucleus and the cytoplasm DNA RNA Nitrogen bases: A,T,G,C Nitrogen bases: A, U, G, C Sugar: deoxyribose Sugar: ribose Double stranded Single stranded 1 type 3 types: a) mRNA – messenger b) tRNA – transfer c) rRNA – ribosomal Found in the nucleus only Found in the nucleus and the cytoplasm Forms a double helix No helix DNA makes DNA DNA makes RNA Very big molecule Much smaller molecule

Adenosine Triphosphate ATP is also thought of as a nucleic acid as it has the same structure as a nucleotide. The only difference is that it has THREE phosphate groups instead of one. This is the energy source for the body.

Adenosine Triphosphate Celllular Respiration Our mitochondria turn the energy of glucose into ATP. Why is it a good molecule to store energy? It takes a lot of energy to put two phosphate molecules together (both –’ve). So when you break that bond, a lot of energy is released. C6H12O6 + 6O2 -----> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)