M.A. Sem- IV; Paper I: Applied Social Psychology Aggression M.A. Sem- IV; Paper I: Applied Social Psychology DR. RASHMI SINGH Assistant Professor Dept. of Psychology

What is agression? Aggressive action is intentional behaviour aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain. Definitions Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 2002: Aggression is a noun that is generally defined as an act of aggressive behavior Bandura, 1973 : Aggression may be defined as harmful behavior which violates social conventions and which may include deliberate intent to harm or injure another person or object. Buss, A. H. (1961). Aggression is a response by an individual that delivers something unpleasant to another person.

Bull, 1990: Aggression is any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or verbal means”. Baron: Aggression is any form of behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.

Nature and Characteristics of Aggression

Aggression refers to a range of behaviors that can result in both physical and psychological harm to oneself, other or objects in the environment. This type of social interaction centers on harming another person, either physically or mentally. Aggressive forms of behavior can be characterized by verbal or physical attack. Aggression may be either appropriate (e.g., self-protective) or, alternatively, it may be destructive to the self and others (Ferris & Grisso, 1996). Aggression may be directed outward against others, causing damage, as in the case of explosive personality disorders. Alternatively, it may be directed inward against oneself, leading to self-damaging acts such as suicide (Raine, 1993, Stoff, Breiling, & Maser, 1997). Historically, some investigators of human and animal behavior, such as Sigmund Freud and Konrad Lorenz, have argued that aggressive behavior is innate but, alternatively, others have proposed that it is a learnt behavior (Conger, Neppl, Kim, & Scaramella, 2003; Huesmann, Moise-Titus, Podolski, & Eron, 2003).

There are both genetic and environmental contributions towards aggressive behavior (Ghodsian-Carpey & Baker, 1987; Raine, 1993   The expression of aggression can occur in a number of ways including verbally, mentally and physically. Psychologists distinguish between different forms of aggression, different purposes of aggression and different types of aggression. Currently, research on the causes of aggression are focused on social learning, modeling, family violence, child abuse, neglect, TV violence, structural and functional brain abnormalities, hormones (e.g., testosterone), and neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin)

Classification of Aggression- Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression, whilst the first is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the second one is characterized by a behavior intended to harm social relations of an individual or a group. de Almeida, Rosa Maria Martins; Cabral, João Carlos Centurion; Narvaes, Rodrigo

Types of Aggression Hostile aggression – behavior intended to harm another, either physically or psychologically, and motivated by feelings of anger and hostility. It includes affective (emotional) and hostile, reactive, or retaliatory aggression that is a response to provocation, Instrumental aggression – is aggression that serves as a means to some goal other than causing pain , a behaviour intended to harm another in the service of motives other than pure hostility . It includes instrumental, goal-oriented or predatory, in which aggression is used as a mean to achieve a goal. For example, to attract attention, acquire wealth, and to advance political and ideological causes)

Types of Aggression Physical Verbal Active Passive Hitting Name-Calling Don’t shake hands Don’t Say Hello

Forms of Aggression Physical Verbal Mental Emotional While we often think of aggression as purely in physical forms such as hitting or pushing, psychological aggression can also be very damaging. Intimidating or verbally berating another person, for example, are examples of verbal, mental and emotional aggression.

THEORITICAL PERSPECTIVES

Psychoanalytic Theory Instinct theory Through evolution, humans have inherited a fighting instinct similar to that found in many species of animals. Ecological Theory Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalytic Theory advanced by Sigmund Freud (1927)  Aggression is genetically inherited. Violence lies within everyone (dormant or active) Postulated that humans have innate instincts toward life, Eros, and towards death and aggression, Thanatos Freud called this “The death instinct”-Thanatos, which is basis of aggressive behaviour.

Cont… Thantos, the force of death or destruction whose energy in directed towards the destruction or termination of life, towards hatred, anger and violence and towards all sorts of aggressive feelings, actions, dealings and behaviours. He thus held that all human behaviour including aggressive behaviour stems from the complex interaction between the instinct of Eros and Thantos and the constant tension between them. Freud held that the death instinct is unrestrained and results in self destruction. So he indicated that through other mechanisms like displacement, the energy of Thantos i.e. aggression is redirected out ward so that it serves as the basis for aggression against others instead of destructing the self.

The Ethological Theory: Freud (1920) was updated by Lorenz (1966). “Behaviour is always predictable and Aggression is genetically inherited. Lorenz stated that aggressive energy is constant- needs a release… link to catharsis? Lorenz - aggression springs from an aggressive instinct (pugnacity) that man shares with many non-human species. This instinct developed during evolution because it yielded benefits in mating, food resources, geographical deployment within an environment of limited resources. However, the innate fighting instinct does not occur unless somehow provoked - environmental cues elicit the fighting instinct Cichlids - fighting fish - red spot. territoriality. Also a hydraulic model.

Criticisms… The evolutionary perspective in psychology has resulted in some changes in this belief. Although most social psychologists still reject the notion that human aggression is caused by innate factors, many now acknowledge the possibility that human aggression can be affected by biological or genetic factors

Social Learning Theory Proposed by (Albert Bandura). Bandura stated All behaviour is learned. Aggression is Nurtured through environment. Human aggression is largely learned by watching other people behave aggressively, either in person or in films. It is also learned when we are rewarded for aggression. Aggression is learned by watching another performer or role model. It is accepted if reinforced by others. It will re-occur if it is part of the norm of the group .

Social Learning Theory (Bandura) “Bobo” doll study: ½ kids watched adult beat up doll ½ kids not exposed to the behavior Kids allowed to play with doll Results ??

Social Learning Theory explains Observational Learning/Instruction Trial and error Origin of Aggression- Aversive treatments Emotional arousal Modelling Incentive Factors provoking Aggression- Tangible rewards Vicarious Reinforcers Self Reinforcement Factors maintaining Aggression Aggression

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis: Dollard (1939) stated frustration occurs when goal-directed behaviour is blocked. Frustration increases when the goal reflects ego or outcome orientation i.e. winners win. Environmental situations: Defeat, good opposition, officiating. Frustration created by the environment triggers the aggressive gene. If the act is successful frustration is released (Catharsis) If the act is unsuccessful: punishment and more frustration.

Berkowitz’s modification of frustration-aggression theory: Aggression Cue Hypothesis Berkowitz (1969) built on the research by Dollard. He agreed that frustration leads to increased arousal, however he disagreed that frustration alone caused aggression. Frustration created “readiness” for aggression which is only triggered when a proactive environmental cue is present. Aggressive cues such as unfairness (perceived) the opposition shirt or nature of the game will trigger aggression if arousal is high.

Model of Aggression Cue Hypothesis frustration leads to anger/ increased arousal Frustration created “readiness” for aggression Frustration anger with an aggressive cue leads to aggression aggressive cue: object associated with aggressive responses (e.g., a gun, unfairness) Anger Aggressive cues such as the opposition shirt or nature of the game will trigger aggression if arousal is high. Aggression

Controlling Aggression Catharsis (“blowing off a little steam”) does not reduce aggression Punishment must be prompt, strong, and justified Exposure to nonaggressive models place prosocial models in violent situations

Contd.. Cognitive interventions Teach social skills apologizing can be effective engage in activities that distract attention away from causes of anger Teach social skills better communication Induce incompatible responses humor

Controlling and Eliminating Aggression… Major factor in optimising performance. Aggression in any theory inhibits concentration and team cohesion. Gill (2000) stated that there is no evidence that aggression or aggressive acts improve performance.

Eliminating Aggression… Somatic (Physiological) Methods- physiological processes: PMR and breathing. BIOFEEDBACK (HR/ Breathing rate etc) helps control this state. Non-aggressive behaviour should be reinforced to ensure a favourable S-R bond. Aggression can be controlled through attribution- success- ability not to intimidation.

Cognitive (Psychological) Methods- Thought processes that lower cognitive arousal. Includes imagery that focus on achieving a calm state of mind (mental rehearsal + vicarious experience?) How do you calm down? Count to 10 Imagery Distancing from cues

References Conner, D. F., & Barkley, R. A. (2004). Aggression and antisocial behavior in children andadolescents: Research and treatment.New York: TheGuilford Press. de Almeida, Rosa Maria Martins; Cabral, João Carlos Centurion; Narvaes, Rodrigo. "Behavioural, hormonal and neurobiological mechanisms of aggressive behaviour in human and nonhuman primates". Physiology & Behavior. 143: 121–135. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.02.053. Buss, A. H. (1961). The psychology of aggression. Hoboken, NJ: John WIley.  Anderson, C. A.; Bushman, B. J. (2002). "Human aggression". Annual Review of Psychology. 53 (1): 27–51.  Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

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