President Eisenhower, the Antarctic Treaty and the Origin of International Spaces Science Diplomacy: Antarctica, Science and the Governance of International Spaces https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/16154 Prof. Paul Arthur Berkman Professor of Practice in Science Diplomacy Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy Tufts University

President Dwight D. Eisenhower PRESIDENTIAL INAUGURAL ADDRESS Washington, DC – January 20, 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower “a day of freedom and of peace for all mankind”

Beyond National Jurisdictions (impacts, issues and resources) National interests Common Interests Deep Sea 1971 Outer Space 1967 Antarctica 1959 High Seas 1958 Berkman 2009. Nature 462: 412-413.

BALLISTIC MISSILES

INTERNATIONAL SPACES

BEYOND NATIONAL BOUNDARIES (International Spaces)

3rd INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR Baltimore – April 5, 1950 Sydney Chapman International Council of Scientific Unions Lloyd Berkner Rocket Scientist James Van Allen Upper Atmospheric Physicist

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC UNIONS Rome – 4 October 1954 July 1, 1957 – December 31, 1958 Comité Spécial de l’Année Géophysique Internationale (CSAGI) “…CSAGI recommends that thought be given to the launching of small satellite vehicles, to their scientific instrumentation, and to the new problems associated with satellite experiments…”

NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL MEETINGS EISENHOWER ADMINISTRATION (1953-1961) Sep 08, 1955 – Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles, Antarctica, Iran, … Jan 12, 1956 – Stockpiles, Budget, Antarctica, Nuclear Weapons Jun 20, 1957 – Nuclear Weapons, Ethiopia, Antarctica, Defense Policy Jun 26, 1957 – Antarctica, Libya, Turkey, Defense Policy Mar 06, 1958 – Antarctica, Space Policy, Scientific Aug 07, 1958 – Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles, Korea, Antarctica, … Dec 10, 1959 – Antarctica, Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles

President Dwight D. Eisenhower “OPEN SKIES” (FREEDOM OF SPACE) PROPOSAL Geneva – July 21, 1955 First Post-War Summit President Dwight D. Eisenhower “I propose… To give to each other a complete blueprint of our military establishments… ample facilities for aerial reconnaissance… comprehensive and effective system of inspection and disarmament...”

FIRST SPACE POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES National Security Council 5520 Washington D.C. – May 20, 1955 National Security Council 5520 “…a program for a small scientific satellite could be developed from existing missile programs already underway within the Department of Defense.” “The IGY affords an excellent opportunity to mesh a scientific satellite program with the cooperative world- wide geophysical observational program” “Considerable prestige and psychological benefits will accrue to the nation which first is successful in launching a satellite.”

WHITE HOUSE PRESS ANNOUNCEMENT Washington, DC – July 29, 1955 James C. Hagerty Based on National Security Council 5520 – the United States will launch “small Earth-circling satellites” as part of the American participation in the International Geophysical Year.

ARMY BALLISTIC MISSILE AGENCY Redstone Arsenal – September 20, 1956 The 4-stage ‘Jupiter C RS-27’ was launched from Redstone with the fourth stage intentionally inactivated. This rocket attained a range of 3335 miles and an altitude of 682 miles and “could have obtained sufficient velocity to place it in orbit, if the last stage had been activated.” Wernher von Braun

Why did the United States choose not to be the first in space – in stark contrast to the race for “priority” that has motivated nations and explorers alike throughout human history?

SPUTNIK LAUNCHED BY THE SOVIET UNION Earth Orbit – October 4, 1957

UNITED STATES LAUNCH OF EXPLORER 1 (MODIFIED JUPITER-C ROCKET) Earth Orbit – February 1, 1958

President Dwight D. Eisenhower INVITATION TO NEGOTIATE AN ANTARCTIC TREATY Washington, DC – May 3, 1958 President Dwight D. Eisenhower “THE UNITED STATES is dedicated to the principle that the vast uninhabited wastes of Antarctica shall be used only for peaceful purposes. We do not want Antarctica to become an object of political conflict. Accordingly, the United States has invited eleven other countries, including the Soviet Union, to confer with us to seek an effective joint means of achieving this objective.”

CONFERENCE ON ANTARCTICA Washington, DC – October 15-December, 1959 Sir Esler Dening Her Majesty’s Government in the United Kingdom have for many years been in favour of the conclusion of an agreement between countries actively interested in the Antarctic…For these reasons, as long ago as 1948, they indicated their readiness to accept proposals put forward by the United States Government for an international regime in the Antarctic. Ten years later, they welcomed equally the invitation of President Eisenhower, extended in May 1958…

Washington, DC – December 1, 1959 ANTARCTIC TREATY Washington, DC – December 1, 1959   Preamble The Governments of Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, the French Republic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the Union of South Africa, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America, Recognizing that it is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue for ever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord; Acknowledging the substantial contributions to scientific knowledge resulting from international cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica; Convinced that the establishment of a firm foundation for the continuation and development of such cooperation on the basis of freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica as applied during the International Geophysical Year accords with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind; Convinced also that a treaty ensuring the use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only and the continuance of international harmony in Antarctica will further the purposes and principles embodied in the Charter of the United Nations; Have agreed as follows:

Washington, DC – December 1, 1959 ANTARCTIC TREATY Washington, DC – December 1, 1959 Preamble Interest of all Mankind Article I Peaceful Purposes Only Article II Freedom of Scientific Investigation Article III International Cooperation in Scientific Investigation Article IV No Basis for Asserting, Supporting or Denying Claims Article V No Nuclear Explosions or Radioactive Waste Disposal Article VI Area of Application South of 60o South Latitude Article VII Freedom of Access and Inspection by Designated Observers Article VIII Jurisdiction by the Contracting Parties over their own Nationals Article IX Consulting and Recommending Measures of Common Interest Article X Consistent with Charter of the United Nations Article XI Resolve Disputes by Peaceful Means Article XII Antarctic Treaty Modifications and Amendment Article XIII Accession and Ratification Article XIV Official Languages and Depository Government

“…any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and the disposal there of radioactive waste material shall be prohibited.” “…aerial observation may be carried out at any time over any or all areas of Antarctica by any of the Contracting Parties.”

“Matters of Common Interest”

Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History http://atsummit50.aq Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History November 30 – December 3, 2009 Washington, D.C.

ANTARCTICA DAY – DECEMBER 1ST Day of Peace for All Mankind http://ourspaces.org.uk