Unit 06 - Overview How We Learn and Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning Biology, Cognition, and Learning Learning By Observation Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.

How Do We Learn? Learning Habituation Stimulus Associative learning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive learning Observational learning

Definition Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. Learning is more flexible in comparison to the genetically-programmed behaviors of Chinooks, for example.

How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning

Stimulus-Stimulus Learning Learning to associate one stimulus with another.

How Do We Learn? Operant Conditioning

Response-Consequence Learning Learning to associate a response with a consequence.

How do we learn? observational learning – learning by watching others’ experiences and examples.

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov John B. Watson Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning- Pavlov’s Experiment Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner. Sovfoto Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Pavlov’s Experiments Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not. OBJECTIVE 2| Explain how an unconditioned stimulus (US)

Pavlov’s Experiments During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response. Unconditioned Response (UCR): A unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, like salivation in the dog when food is in the mouth. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally a neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus.

CC Pavlov’s experiment with dogs: food in mouth  salivation after repetition the dog would salivate even when stimuli associated with food was presented (dish, footsteps, door opening, etc.) he decided to experiment

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments

CC Dog was isolated and harnessed! Present food through opening Paired a neutral stimulus with presentation of food (a tone, a light, etc.) Dog forms an association b/w neutral stimulus and food Dog begins to salivate just with neutral stimulus It works with people too!!!

Classical Conditioning

Classical Condition – VERY IMPORTANT TERMS!!! UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR): a naturally occurring response to a stimuli (it doesn’t have to be learned) UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US): a stimulus that naturally triggers a response CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR): a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS): used to be the neutral stimulus; but after pairing it with a US it triggers a conditioned response

(Hopefully) A HELPFUL SUMMARY Conditioned = learned UNconditioned = UNlearned or instinctive

Classical Conditioning Acquisition Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place Higher-order conditioning

Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.

Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again. Spontaneous recovery

Classical Conditioning Generalization a tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS

Generalization in a nutshell John Watson SICKO!!

Classical Conditioning Discrimination Discrimination the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Discrimination in a nutshell Like dogs? Which one are you afraid of??

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy Classical conditioning applies to other organisms Showed how to study a topic scientifically

John Watson and Baby Albert Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy: Applications of Classical Conditioning John Watson and Baby Albert

Difference b/w CC and OC Classical Conditioning – the organism learns associations between events that it DOES NOT control. Operant Conditioning – the organism learns associations between its behavior and resulting events.

Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning Respondent behavior Operant conditioning Actions associated with consequences Operant behavior

Skinner’s Experiments Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect B.F. Skinner Behavioral technology Behavior control This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.

Skinner’s Experiments Operant Chamber (Skinner Box) Reinforcement

Skinner’s Experiments Shaping Behavior An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. Shaping Successive approximations Discriminative stimulus

Shaping Example Avion has difficulty kicking the kickball while playing with the class during recess and physical education class.  Put these steps in her shaping program in the correct order. Avion will run to an approaching ball rolled slowly by the teacher and kick it firmly. Avion will stand in place and kick a stationary ball. Avion will run to a quickly approaching ball that has spin on it and kick it firmly. Avion will stand in place and firmly kick a slowly approaching ball rolled by the teacher. Avion will run to an approaching ball rolled quickly by another student and kick it firmly.

Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement

Primary reinforcer – innately reinforcing (food, water) Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers: Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Primary reinforcer – innately reinforcing (food, water) Conditioned reinforcer Secondary reinforcer Immediate vs delayed reinforcers

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement Partial (intermittent) reinforcement Schedules Fixed-ratio schedule Variable-ratio schedule Fixed-interval schedule Variable-interval schedule

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules

Examples: Which Schedule…? Studying for an exam when it gets close Preparing every night for a possible “pop quiz” Factory worker being paid based on the number of sleeves they sew on a sweatshirt. Casting out to catch a fish all afternoon long.

Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules

Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Positive punishment Negative punishment

Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Negatives of using punishment Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten Punishment teaches discrimination Punishment can teach fear Physical punishment may increase aggression

Skinner’s Legacy Controversies surrounding Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will (to the video tape!).

Applications of Operant Conditioning Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards. OBJECTIVE 19| Describe some ways to apply operant conditioning principles at school, at work and at home. LWA-JDL/ Corbis In School

Applications of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance. In Sports

Applications of Operant Conditioning Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership. At work

Applications of Operant Conditioning In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning

Extending Pavlov’s Understanding Pavlov and Watson underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints on learning.

Biological Constraints on Conditioning

Biological Predispositions Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals. No difference in how Pigeons and People learn. What, what?? However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology. OBJECTIVE 7| Describe some of the ways that biological predisposition can affect learning by classical conditioning.

Natural Selection and Learning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning Important name!! John Garcia Conditioned Taste Aversion Biologically primed associations Natural Selection and Learning Genetic predisposition

Biological Predispositions Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to others (light or sound). Courtesy of John Garcia John Garcia

Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning

Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Operant Conditioning Naturally adapting behaviors Instinctive drift

Biological Predisposition Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors. OBJECTIVE 17| Explain how biological predisposition place limits on what can be achieved through operant conditioning. Photo: Bob Bailey Marian Breland Bailey

Recall your participation in the balloon pop demo! Cognitive Processes Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms. However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988). Recall your participation in the balloon pop demo! OBJECTIVE 6| Discuss the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning.

Predictability of an event Stimulus associations Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning Predictability of an event Expectancy Stimulus associations

Cognition & Operant Conditioning Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment). OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how latent learning and the effect of external rewards demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning

LATENT LEARNING Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

Would you be able to find your way?

Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments. Remember the study with school-age artists?

Influences on Conditioning

Learning and Personal Control Cope Problem-focused coping Emotion-focused coping

Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)

External locus of control Internal locus of control Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness: Internal Versus External Locus of Control External locus of control Internal locus of control

Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness: Depleting and Strengthening Self-Control

Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain Observational learning Social learning Modeling Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

Albert Bandura Still alive today (born 1925) Social Cognitive Learning Theory We look and we learn. Bobo Doll Experiment

modeling – the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior other “less structured” examples: fashion, catch phrases, traditions, fads – all spread by imitation

Bo-Bo Doll Experiment Albert Bandura

Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. Mirror neurons

Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain Cognitive imitation

Prosocial effects Antisocial effects Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial versus Antisocial Effects Prosocial effects Antisocial effects

Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

Positive Observational Learning Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. OBJECTIVE 23| Discuss the impact of prosocial modeling. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

The End

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Definition Slides

Learning = the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Habituation = an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

Associative Learning = learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Stimulus = any event or situation that evokes a response.

Cognitive Learning = the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Classical Conditioning = a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Behaviorism = the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Neutral Stimulus = in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UR) = in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) = in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response (UR).

Conditioned Response (CR) = in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Acquisition = in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Higher-Order Conditioning = a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Extinction = the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous Recovery = the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization = the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination = in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning = a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Law of Effect = Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Operant Chamber = in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reinforcement = in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Shaping = an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus = in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Positive Reinforcement = increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement = increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.

Primary Reinforcer = an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Conditioned Reinforcer = a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Reinforcement Schedule = a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous Reinforcement = reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement = reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment = an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Biofeedback = a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Respondent Behavior = behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Operant Behavior = behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Cognitive Map = a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Latent Learning = learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Insight = a sudden realization problem’s solution.

Intrinsic Motivation = a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation = a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Coping = alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

Problem-Focused Coping = attempting to alleviate stress directly – by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Emotion-Focused Coping = attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

Learned Helplessness = the helplessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

External Locus of Control = the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Internal Locus of Control = the perception that you control your own fate.

Self-Control = the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

Observational Learning = learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

Modeling = the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Mirror Neurons = frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Prosocial Behavior = positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.