Fire Loss Control - Basic Elements Mgt. & Maint. IgnitionSources Building Construction OCCUPANCY Jail Fireworks Factory Day Care Code Enforcement Fuel Sources ResponseOn & Offsite CombustionProducts Detection & Suppression

Major Weakness in Building Design Primary concern: Expense Utility Appearance Neglected area Fire protection

Building & Site Planning Early in design or planning process Active (sprinklers) Passive (fire walls / doors / extinguishers)

Firesafety Planning for Sites Traffic & transportation Fire Department access to site Water supply to site

Building Design & Construction Features Influencing Firesafety 1. Fire Propagation a. Fuel load & distribution b. Finish materials & location c. Construction details influencing fire & products of combustion movement d. Architectural design features

Building Design & Construction Features Influencing Firesafety 2. Smoke & Fire Gas Movement a. Generation b. Movement Natural air Mechanical air c. Control Ventilation Heating, ventilating, air conditioning Barriers Pressurization d. Occupant Protection Egress Temporary refuge spaces Life support systems

Building Design & Construction Features Influencing Firesafety 3. Detection, Alarm & Communication a. Activation b. Signal c. Communication systems To & from occupants To & from fire department Type (automatic or manual) Signal (audio or visual)

Building Design & Construction Features Influencing Firesafety 4. People Movement a. Occupant Horizontal Vertical Control Life Support b. Fire Fighters

Building Design & Construction Features Influencing Firesafety 5. Suppression Systems a. Automatic b. Manual (self-help; standpipes) c. Special 6. Fire Fighting Operations a. Access b. Rescue operations c. Venting d. Extinguishment Equipment Spatial design features e. Protection from structural collapse

Building Design & Construction Features Influencing Firesafety 7. Structural Integrity a. Building structural system (fire endurance) b. Compartmentation c. Stability 8. Site Design a. Exposure protection b. Firefighting operations c. Personnel safety d. Miscellaneous (water supply, traffic, access, etc.)

Fire Emergency Considerations 1. Life Safety a. Toxic gases b. Smoke c. Surface flame spread 2. Property Protection a. Fire propagation b. Structural stability 3. Continuity of Operations a. Structural integrity 4. Environmental Protection

Objectives of Fire-safe Building Design Life safety - Primary Concern Number of occupants Familiarity with building Ability to recognize fire hazards & take appropriate actions Length of time building will be occupied

Objectives of Fire-safe Building Design Property Protection High value Install fire extinguishing systems Provide compartmentation to confine or limit fire spread Use fire resistant building materials

Objectives of Fire-safe Building Design Continuity of Operations Specific & unique building functions Downtime (business interruption) Installation of automatic fire extinguishing systems

Objectives of Fire-safe Building Design Environmental Protection Air pollution (smoke or hazardous material runoff) “Let it burn” vs. pollution from runoff Installation of automatic fire-extinguishing systems to limit fire size & minimize runoff

Construction Terms Combustible Noncombustible Limited combustible Fire barrier wall Fire resistance rating Fire wall Flame spread rating Flame resistance Flame retardant

Types of Building Construction Compression Tension Shear See Figure 4.1

Types of Building Construction Noncombustible (concrete, masonry, steel) Combustible (wood) Dependent on classification of structural frame elements (columns, beams, girders, trusses & spandrels)

Noncombustible Construction Type I - “fire-resistive” (F.R.) Type II - noncombustible or limited combustible. Type II-000 - most common commercial type Concern is structural elements have no level of fire resistance Exposed to direct heat & flame

Combustible Construction Type III - 2-hr. fire resistance rating. Exterior - noncombustible. Interior -combustible Type IV - heavy timber (mill construction). Glue-laminated timbers Type V - most common Wood structural framing element

NFPA 220 First - Exterior bearing walls Second - Columns, beam, girders, trusses & arches, supporting bearing walls, columns or loads from more than one floor Second - Floor construction

Classifying Types of Construction Mixed - common Classified as to the lowest type of construction used

Fire Hazards in Buildings Combustible interior finish Combustible furnishings Fire & smoke spread prevent escape Poor design Building collapse

Interior Finish Materials that make up exposed interior surface: Walls Ceiling Floors Common interior finishes Wood & plywood Plaster Wall board Acoustical tile Insulating & decorative finishes Plastics

Building Materials Wood Steel Concrete/Masonry Glass Plastics/Composites Gypsum/Plaster

Wood Oldest/most commonly used Economical Easy to work with Disadvantage - combustible

Steel Skeleton or frame Used in exterior walls/supports Requires specialized tools & fastening methods Noncombustible Expands when exposed to heat Conducts heat Loses strength at fire temperatures

Concrete/Masonry Concrete - cement, water & aggregate Good compressive strength Weak tensile strength Very fire resistant Absorbs high amounts of heat Three types of concrete

Types of Concrete Precast - made off site & set into place at construction site Used for walls, floors & roof assemblies Can include steel rods/cables

Types of Concrete Cast-in-Place - mixed in concrete plants & transported to concrete sites Poured into molds/forms Plain, reinforced or posttensioning

Types of Concrete Concrete Masonry Units (CMU) - cinder blocks Foundations & walls Very fire resistive Maintain integrity under fire conditions Used to build fire walls

Glass Glazing for windows & doors Not very fire resistive Resists passage of smoke Wire mesh improves resistivity

Plastics & Composites Behave poorly in fire conditions Soften & distort in heat Give off toxic fire gases Not used for structural support Fiberglass-reinforced plastic commonly used - good insulator, noncombustible

Gypsum & Plaster Plaster - very fire resistive, difficult to work with Gypsum (sheetrock or drywall) Both are used to construct fire walls & fire barrier walls & provide fire-resistive protection for structural steel & wood Both very fire resistant but easy to penetrate

Other Common Materials Brick - walls Tile - interior wall or floor finish Aluminum - lightweight skin on buildings

Building Failures & Concerns Minimizing materials used Lightweight construction materials

Lightweight Wood Construction 40% reduction in total mass of lumber Largest piece of lumber is a 2 x 4 Triangular pattern - tremendous load bearing capabilities Economical Chars easily Gusset plate loses hold

Lightweight Steel Construction Smaller & lighter weight Structural engineering vs. standard size steel beams & bar joists Impact of heat or flame impingement greater Less factors of safety

Increased Fuel Loading Increase in use of synthetic materials Burn faster & higher rate of heat release Some are easily ignited & burn vigorously High surface flames possible

Impact of Fire in Buildings Four products of combustion: Flame/fire Heat Smoke Toxic gas

Flame/Fire Larger buildings - fire walls / barriers Compartments limit fire spread & occupant’s exposure Other products of combustion are more dangerous & toxic

Heat Objective: Protect from vertical heat & smoke travel Occupant tenability severely limited in temps over a few hundred degrees Structure severely impacted at 9000 F - 11000 F

Smoke Methods of smoke control: Ventilation Removing air Pressurizing adjacent areas Smoke-resistant construction Combination of methods Reduction of fire deaths - smoke alarms

Toxic Gas Present in smoke & heat Lethal in relatively small quantities Asphyxiants, irritants or have anesthetic effects CO most detectible CO detectors not substitute for smoke alarms

Ratings, Testing & Research Tests & Listings Standardized method for evaluating endurance - time-temperature curve (p. 160) Basis of fire resistance requirements Not precise measurement

NFPA 80 - Fire Doors & Windows Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E

Fire-Resistance-Rating Materials Initial requirements for exterior building walls Interior walls, floors & ceilings to confine fire Loss contained to area within building Automatic sprinkler protection reduces area affected Fire doors protect vertical & horizontal openings

Flame Spread Ratings Materials must be non-combustible or protected by fire-resistive covering/ coating Materials first involved are contents, furnishings & interior finishes Flame Spread Rating/Index - specs/standards of finish on interior walls & ceilings to resist fire spread

Flame Spread Ratings Provide relative measure of how materials allow fire to spread across surface Higher level of flame spread rating on materials used in assembly occupancies & egress components

Fire Resistive Assemblies & Opening Protection See Table 4.4, Page 163

Flame Spread Classifications Class Flame Smoke Spread Developed Range A 0 - 25 0 - 450 B 26 - 75 0 - 450 C 76 - 200 0 - 450

Fire & Fuel Loading Expressed as the weight of combustible materials per square unit of floor area Includes combustible structural elements, combustible contents & interior finishes Consider type & quantity of materials

Classification of Building Contents See Figure 4.14, Page 165

Fire Severity Expected by Occupancy See Table 4.6, Page 166

Smoke Management Methods Should Accomplish A tenable environment in the means of egress Contain smoke in the area of fire origin Facilitate search, rescue & fire attack Protect life & reduce property damage

Methods of Smoke Management Automatic sprinkler (best) Air pressure differential across physical barriers Large air volume between barriers Smoke dilution (for postfire smoke removal) - replaces contaminated air with fresh air using HVAC

Building Systems & Services Elevators - spread of smoke or heat Escalators - unprotected vertical opening HVAC - use of automatic dampers Fire dampers Smoke dampers Combination fire/smoke dampers

Building Systems & Services Fire protection systems Automatic sprinklers - water in early stages Standpipes -fire dept. operations in large/tall buildings Fire alarm systems - rapid notification for prompt egress

Special Structures High Rise Buildings 75’ above lowest level of access to floor of highest occupancy Fires in taller buildings must be attacked from interior Resource intense & dangerous Automatic sprinkler system required

Special Structures Recently, structured with interior steel framework for support Curtain walls - exterior walls that do not support load of building Drawback - fire can extend vertically from story to story on outside

Large Warehouses High-piled combustible storage/merchandise Big box retail stores 12’ - minimum for classification Also contain flammable & combustible liquids along with hazardous materials Wooden/plastic pallets Specialized sprinkler protection needed