15—Families Family Processes Parenting Siblings Families and Adolescents The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Summary

Family Processes Reciprocal Socialization and the Family as a System The process by which children socialize parents just as parents socialize them.

Family Processes Reciprocal Socialization and the Family as a System Scaffolding Parental behavior that supports children’s efforts, allowing children to be more skillful than they would be if they relied only on their own abilities.

Family Processes Reciprocal Socialization and the Family as a System As a social system, the family can be thought of as a constellation of subsystems defined in terms of generation, gender, and role (Davis, 1996). Marital Relationships and Parenting Happily married parents are more sensitive, responsive, warm, and affectionate toward their children (Grych, 2002).

Family Processes Reciprocal Socialization The process by which children socialize parents just as parents socialize them. Scaffolding Parental behavior that supports children’s efforts, allowing children to be more skillful than they would be if they relied only on their own abilities.

Family Processes The Developmental Construction of Relationships Developmental construction views Views sharing the belief that as individuals grow up, they acquire modes of relating to others. There are two main variations of this view. One emphasizes continuity and stability in relationships throughout the life span; the other emphasizes discontinuity and changes in relationships throughout the life span.

Family Processes The Developmental Construction of Relationships The Continuity View A developmental view that emphasized the role of early parent-child relationships in constructing a basic way of relating to people throughout the life span. The Discontinuity View A developmental view that emphasizes change and growth in relationships over time

Family Processes Interaction between Children and Their Parents: Direct and Indirect Effects Refer to Figure 15.1

Family Processes Adapting Parenting to Developmental Changes in the Child Maccoby (1984) believes that a competent parent adapts to the child’s developmental changes. Sociocultural and Historical Changes Family changes may be due to great upheavals in a nation, or they may be due more to subtle transitions in ways of life.

Family Processes The Roles of Cognitions and Emotion in Family Relationships Underlying much of the current research on socialization processes in families is the belief that cognition and emotion generally operate together in determining parenting practices (Dix, 1991).

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 Discuss family processes

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 What is reciprocal socialization? How can the family be viewed as a system? What are the two versions of the developmental construction of relationships? How can parenting be adapted to developmental changes in the child? What are some sociocultural and historical changes that have influenced the family? What roles do cognition and emotion play in family relationships?

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 What do you predict will be some major changes in families in the twenty-first century?

Parenting The Parental Role Parents as Managers Parenting consists of a number of interpersonal skills and emotional demands, yet there is little in the way of formal education for this task. Parents as Managers Parents can play important roles as managers of children’s opportunities, as monitors of children’s social relationships, and as social initiators and arrangers (Parke & Buriel, 1998).

Parenting Parenting Styles Authoritarian parenting This is restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent’s directions and to respect their work and effort. Firm limits and controls are placed on the child, and little verbal exchange is allowed. This style is associated with children’s socially incompetent behavior.

Parenting Parenting Styles (continued) Authoritative parenting This style encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give and take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the child. This style is associated with children’s socially competent behavior.

Parenting Parenting Styles (continued) Neglectful parenting A style in which the parent is uninvolved in the child’s life. It is associated with children’s social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.

Parenting Parenting Styles (continued) Indulgent parenting A style in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them. This is associated with children’s social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.

Parenting Punishment Most child psychologists recommend reasoning with the child, especially explaining the consequences of the child’s action for others, as the best way to handle children’s misbehaviors.

Parenting Classification of Parenting Styles Refer to Figure 15.2

Parenting Corporal Punishment in Different Countries Refer to Figure 15.3

Parenting Child Maltreatment The Multifaceted Nature of Abuse Over 1 million children are affected by maltreatment each year, with 2,000 children killed by their caregivers (National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect, 2002). The Cultural Context of Abuse The extensive violence that takes place in the American culture is reflected in the occurrence of violence in the family (Azar, 2002).

Parenting Child Maltreatment Family Influences To understand abuse in the family, the interactions of all family members need to be considered, regardless of who actually performs the violent acts against the child (Margolin, 1994).

Parenting Child Maltreatment Developmental Consequences of Abuse Among the developmental consequences of child maltreatment are poor emotional regulation, attachment problems, problems in peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, and other psychological problems (Azar, 2002; Shonk & Cicchetti, 2001).

Parenting Parenting Takes Time and Effort Parents who do not spend enough time with their children or who have problems in child rearing can benefit from counseling and therapy.

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 Explain how parenting is linked to children’s development Review What are some dimensions of the parental role? How can parents be effective managers of children? What are the four main styles of parenting? How are they linked to children’s development? How does punishment affect children? What are some factors involved in child maltreatment? What are the developmental outcomes of child maltreatment? How does effective parenting involve time and effort?

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 In our discussion of parenting, authoritative parenting was associated with children’s social competence. In some cases, though, a child’s parents differ in their parenting styles. Consider all four parenting styles—authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, and indulgent—on the parts of the mother and father. (continued)

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 Reflect (continued) A best case is when both parents are authoritative. What might be the effects on the child when one parent uses one style and the other parent uses a different style? Also, consider what style or styles of parenting your mother and father used in rearing you. What effects do you think their parenting style(s) had on your development?

Siblings Sibling Relationship Children’s sibling relationships including helping, sharing, teaching, fighting, and playing. In dealing with peers, coping with difficult teachers, and discussing such taboo subjects as sex, siblings may be more influential than parents in the socialization process.

Siblings Birth Order When differences related to birth order are found, they usually are explained by variations in interactions with parents and siblings associated with the unique experiences of being in a particular position in the family.

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 Identify how siblings influence children’s development Review How can sibling relationships be characterized? What role does birth order play in children’s development?

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 If you grew up with a sibling, you likely showed some jealousy of your sibling and vice versa. What can parents do to help children reduce their jealousy toward a sibling?

Families and Adolescents Autonomy and Attachment The ability to attain autonomy and gain control over one’s behavior in adolescence is acquired through appropriate adult reactions to the adolescent’s desire for control (Keener & Boykin, 1996). Dismissing/avoidant attachment An insecure attachment category in which individuals deemphasize the importance of attachment. This category is associated with consistent experiences of rejection of attachment needs by caregivers.

Families and Adolescents Autonomy and Attachment Preoccupied/ambivalent attachment An insecure attachment category in which adolescents are hypertuned to attachment experiences. This is thought to mainly occur because parents are inconsistently available to the adolescent.

Families and Adolescents Autonomy and Attachment Unresolved/disorganized attachment An insecure category in which the adolescent has an unusually high level of fear and is disoriented. This may result from such traumatic experiences as a parent’s death or abuse by parents.

Families and Adolescents Parent-Adolescent Conflict The everyday conflicts that characterize parent-adolescent relationships may actually serve a positive developmental function.

Families and Adolescents Old and New Models of Parent-Adolescent Relationships Refer to Figure 15.4

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4 Summarize the changes in families with adolescents Review What roles do autonomy and attachment play in parent-adolescent relationships? How extensive is parent-adolescent conflict? How does parent-adolescent conflict affect adolescent development?

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4 What was the nature of your relationship with your parents during middle school and high school? Has your relationship with your parents changed since then? Does it involve less conflict? What do you think are the most important characteristics of a competent parent of adolescents?

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Working Mothers It is not certain that children with mothers working outside of the home actually receive less attention than children in the past whose mothers were not employed.

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Effects of Divorce on Children Are Children Better Adjusted in Intact, Never-Divorced Families Than in Divorced Families Should Parents Stay Together for the Sake of Their Children? How Much Do Family Processes Matter in Divorced Families?

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World What Factors Are Involved in the Child’s Individual Risk and Vulnerability in a Divorced Family? What Role Does Socioeconomic Status Play in the Lives of Children in Divorced Families?

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Single-Parent Families in Different Countries Refer to Figure 15.5

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Divorce and Children’s Emotional Problems Refer to Figure 15.6

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Stepfamilies Three common types of stepfamily structure are (1) stepfather, (2) stepmother, and (3) blended or complex. Researchers have found that early adolescence is an especially difficult time for the formation of a stepfamily (Anderson & others, 1999). Gay and Lesbian Parents Diversity Among Lesbian Mothers, Gay Fathers, and Their Children Effects on Children of Having Lesbian Mothers and Gay Fathers

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations in Families Cross-Cultural Studies Cultures vary on a number of issues involving families (Harnes & Super, 2002). Ethnicity Families within different ethnic groups in the United States differ in their size, structure, composition, reliance on kinships, networks, and levels of income and education (Coll & Pachter, 2002; Parke & Buriel, 1998).

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations in Families Socioeconomic Status In America and most Western cultures, differences have been found in child rearing among different socioeconomic (SES) groups (Hoff, Laursen, & Tardif, 2002).

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Gender and Parenting The Mother’s Role The role of the mother brings with it benefits as well as limitations. The Father’s Role Amount of Father Involvement Men today appear to be better fathers—when they are around.

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Gender and Parenting Impact of Fathering on Men Themselves Although having a child often produces an initial decline in marital satisfaction on the part of fathers, over time involve fathering has positive effects on men’s self-identity, relationship with a spouse, and community involvement.

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Gender and Parenting Influence of Fathering on Children’s Development Researchers have found that fathers who use an authoritative parenting style are more likely to have children with fewer externalized problems and internalized problems (Marsiglio & others, 2000).

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Gender and Parenting Coparenting When parents show cooperation, mutual respect, balanced communication, and attunement to each other’s needs, this helps the child to develop positive attitudes to both males and females (Biller, 1993; Tamis-Lemonda & Cabrera, 1999).

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World Ratio of Fathers’ to Mothers’ Time Engaged with or Accessible to Children on Weekdays Refer to Figure 15.7

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 5 Characterize the changing family in a changing social world

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 5 How are children influenced by working mothers? How does divorce affect children’s development? What are the effects of a stepfamily on children’s development? How do lesbian mothers and gay fathers influence children’s development?

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 5 Review (continued) How do culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status influence children’s development in a family? What roles do mothers and fathers play in children’s development? How does coparenting affect children’s development?

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 5 Now that you have studied many aspects of families in this chapter, imagine that you have decided to write a book on some aspect of families. What specific aspect of families would you mainly focus on? What would be the title of your book? What would be the major theme of the book?

Summary Children socialize parents just as parents socialize children. The developmental construction views share the belief that as individuals grow up they acquire modes of relating to others.

Summary Parents need to adapt their parenting as children grow older, using less physical manipulation and more reasoning in the process. Changes in families may be due to great upheavals, such as war, or more subtle changes, such as television and the mobility of families.

Summary The role of cognition includes parent’s cognitions, beliefs, and values about their parental role, as well as the way they perceive, organize, and understand their children’s behaviors and beliefs. For some, the parental role is well planned and coordinated. For others, there is surprise.

Summary An increased trend is to conceptualize parents as managers of children’s lives. Authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, and indulgent are the four main categories of parenting styles.

Summary There are a number of reasons not to use physical punishment in disciplining children, and in some countries physical punishment of children has been outlawed. Child maltreatment is an increasing problem in the United States and is a multifaceted problem.

Summary Siblings interact with each other in more negative and less varied ways than parents and children interact. Birth order is related in certain ways to child characteristics, but some critics believe it has been overemphasized as a predictor of child behavior.

Summary Many parents have a difficult time handling the adolescent’s push for autonomy. Conflict with parents often increases in early adolescence, but this conflict is often moderate rather than severe.

Summary In general, in most studies, the mother’s working outside the home has not had an adverse effect on children’s development. Children in divorced families show more adjustment problems than their counterparts in nondivorced families.

Summary Like in divorced families, children in stepfamilies have more problems than their counterparts in nondivorced families.

Summary Approximately 20 percent of lesbians and 10 percent of gay men are parents. Researchers have found few differences between children growing up in gay or lesbian families and children growing up in heterosexual families.

Summary Cultures vary on a number of issues regarding families. Most people associate motherhood with a number of positive images, but the reality is that motherhood is accorded a relatively low status in our society.