12 Motivation.

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Presentation transcript:

12 Motivation

Motivation Defining motivation An inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation. Intrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an activity for its own sake. Extrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an activity for external rewards, such as money or fame.

The Hungry Animal Motives to eat How much do genes, psychology, and the environment affect our motivation to eat?

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12 The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is. The genetics of weight Heavy people are no more or less emotionally disturbed than average weight people. Heaviness is not always caused by overeating. Set point C-level The genetically influenced weight range for an individual; it is maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves, and metabolism.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12 The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is. Body weight of twins Identical twins are more similar in body weight than fraternal twins. Whether raised together or apart Genetic factors play a large role in body weight.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12 The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is. The role of leptin Leptin alters the brain chemistry that influences how animals eat as adults. Regulates weight by strengthening neural circuits in hypothalamus that reduce appetite and weakening neural circuits that strengthen appetite. Has led to hypothesis that overfeeding infants while hypothalamus is developing may produce childhood obesity.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12 The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is. The complexity of weight Appetite suppressants alone often fail to help individuals lose weight. Other factors Other genes and body chemicals Hormones which regulate hunger Receptors in nose, mouth, and stomach

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12 The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is. The overweight debate Weight or fitness? Many researchers believe that individuals who are overweight and physically fit are actually healthier than individuals who are sedentary and thin.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12 The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.2 Discuss five major environmental influences on weight, and provide an example of each. Environmental influences on weight Increased abundance of fast food Widespread consumption of high-sugar, high-calorie soft drinks Sharp decline in exercise and other expenditures of energy Increased portion sizes of food and drink Abundance of highly varied foods

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12 The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.2 Discuss five major environmental influences on weight, and provide an example of each. Cultural attitudes In many cultures, where food is a rarer commodity, fat is viewed as a sign of health and affluence in men, sexual desirability in women. Although people of all ethnicities and social classes have been getting heavier, the cultural ideal for white women has been getting thinner. The cultural ideal for men has also changed. Muscles used to mean working class, now muscular bodies symbolize affluence.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12 The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.3 Distinguish between anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, and discuss some factors that contribute to each disorder. Eating disorders Bulimia: An eating disorder characterized by episodes of excessive eating (bingeing) followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives (purging). Anorexia nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced consumption of food, and emaciation.

The Social Animal LO12.4 Describe how passionate love, compassionate love, social bonding, and the action of vasopressin and oxytocin all contribute to or understanding of the biology of love. The biology of love Neurological origins of passionate love begin in infancy when infants attach to the mother. Certain neurotransmitters and hormones involved in pleasure and reward are activated in mother-baby, adult lover, and close friend bonds. Vasopressin, oxytocin, endorphins Functional fMRIs have shown other neurological similarities. Certain parts of the brain activate when people look at pictures of sweethearts and biological children.

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12 The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships. The psychology of love Predictors of love Proximity: choosing friends and lovers from the set of people who are closest to us Similarity: choosing friends and lovers who are like us in looks, attitudes, beliefs, personality, and interests

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12 The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships. The attachment theory of love Like infants to their caregivers, adults have attachment styles to their partners. Secure: rarely jealous or worried about abandonment Avoidant: distrustful, avoids intimate attachments Anxious-ambivalent: agitated and worried partner will leave

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12 The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships. The ingredients of love Intimacy Based on deep knowledge of the other person, which accumulates gradually Passion Based on emotion, which is generated by novelty and change Commitment

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12 The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships. The psychological factors of love Perception, by both partners, that the relationship is fair, rewarding, and balanced. Motivation Positive: to enjoy affection and intimacy Negative: to avoid feeling insecure and lonely

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12 The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.6 Summarize the research on gender differences and cultural differences in romantic relationships. Gender, culture, love Males and females respond similarly to: Love at first sight Passionate love Companionate love Unrequited love Secure and insecure attachment Being the break-up recipient

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12 The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.6 Summarize the research on gender differences and cultural differences in romantic relationships. Gender, culture, love, cont’ Men and women differ in how they express love. Men–doing; women–saying Men and women used to have different goals in choices of partners. Men–more romantic; women–more pragmatic As more women have become economically self-sufficient, differences have decreased.

The Erotic Animal LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both illuminated and complicated our views of human sexuality. Biology and desire Kinsey suggested that males and females had similar orgasms. Masters and Johnson asserted that women’s capacity for sexual responses surpassed men’s. But didn’t examine differences based on developmental, experiential, or cultural factors

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12 The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both illuminated and complicated our views of human sexuality. Hormones and sexual response Testosterone appears to promote sexual desire in both sexes. However, this is not a simple relationship. Sexual behavior also increases testosterone. Psychological factors are usually more important than hormones. Sexual offenders who are chemically castrated don’t always lose sexual desires.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12 The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both illuminated and complicated our views of human sexuality. Sex and the sex drive Physiological responses don’t always correlate with subjective experiences. Psychologists still disagree on whether there are sex differences in sex drive. Social psychologists suggest Males’ sexual behavior is more biologically determined. Females’ sexual desires and responsiveness are more affected by circumstances, the specific relationship, and cultural norms.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12 The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.8 Describe how biology, culture, hormones, and expectations might all contribute to findings regarding differences in the sexuality of women and men. The psychology of desire People’s motives for having sex affect many aspects of their sexual behavior, including whether they engage in sex in the first place. Extrinsic motives also come into play.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12 The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape. Motives for sex Pleasure Intimacy Insecurity Partner approval Peer approval Attaining a goal

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12 The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape. Sexual coercion and rape Persistent gender differences occur in perceptions of, and experiences with, sexual coercion. Of a representative sample of 16,507 adults, 1 in 5 women said they had been raped or experienced attempted rape at least once. Men also reported being victimized; 1 in 7 said they had been severely beaten by a partner.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12 The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape. Motivations for rape Narcissism and hostility toward women A desire to dominate, humiliate, or punish the victim Sadism

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12 The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to sexual behavior and expectations about that behavior. Culture of desire Sexual scripts Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behavior for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s gender, age, sexual orientation, religion, social status, and peer group.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12 The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to sexual behavior and expectations about that behavior. Biological explanations Prenatal exposure and androgens May be moderately heritable

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12 The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to sexual behavior and expectations about that behavior. Difficulty in identifying causes Sexual identity and behavior are different and occur in different combinations. Some individuals are sexually attracted to both men and women. Some individuals are heterosexual in behavior but have homosexual fantasies. Sexual behaviors can differ in different cultures.

The Competent Animal LO12 The Competent Animal LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and goal-achievement successful, and distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals. Importance of goals Goals improve motivation when… the goal is specific. the goal is challenging but achievable. the goal is framed in terms of getting what you want rather than avoiding what you do not want. Approach goals Goals framed in terms of desired outcomes or experiences, such as learning to scuba dive. Avoidance goals Goals framed in terms of avoiding unpleasant experiences, such as trying not to look foolish in public.

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12 The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and goal-achievement successful, and distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals. Types of goals Performance goals Goals framed in terms of performing well in front of others, being judged favorably, and avoiding criticism. Mastery (learning) goals Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s competence and skills.

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12 The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and goal-achievement successful, and distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals. Mastery and motivation

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12 The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.12 Explain the elements of a self-fulfilling prophecy, and offer suggestions for how to break that cycle. Expectations and self-efficacy Self-fulfilling prophecy An expectation that comes true because of the tendency to act in ways that bring it about. Self-efficacy A person’s belief that he or she is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and reaching goals.

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12 The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.13 Describe how working conditions affect motives to achieve. Working conditions Conditions that increase job involvement, motivation, and satisfaction Work provides a sense of meaningfulness Employees have control over part of their work Tasks are varied Employees have supportive relationships with superiors and co-workers Employees receive useful feedback Company offers opportunities for growth

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12 The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.13 Describe how working conditions affect motives to achieve. Opportunities to achieve When a person lacks a fair chance to make it, he or she may be less than successful.

Motives, values, and the pursuit of happiness Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness LO12.14 Discuss how accurate people are at estimating the type, duration, and extent of their future emotions, and comment on what research indicates makes people happy. Motives, values, and the pursuit of happiness

Motivational conflicts Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness, cont’ LO12.15 Describe three types of motivational conflicts people often face, and give an example of each. Motivational conflicts Approach–approach conflicts Occur when you are equally attracted to two or more possible activities or goals Avoidance-avoidance conflicts Require you to choose between the lesser of two evils because you dislike both alternatives Approach-avoidance conflicts Occur when a single activity or goal has both a positive and a negative aspect

How to attain your goals Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness, cont’ LO12.15 Describe three types of motivational conflicts people often face, and give an example of each. How to attain your goals Seek activities that are intrinsically pleasurable. Focus on learning goals, not only on performance goals. Assess your working conditions. Take steps to resolve motivational conflicts.