Thinking and Reasoning LO 8 Thinking and Reasoning LO 8.1a Identify methods for achieving cognitive economy. Thinking is any mental activity or processing of information. Includes fundamental aspects of cognition, such as learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, and deciding Our brains are cognitive misers.

Heuristics and Biases (1 of 2) LO 8 Heuristics and Biases (1 of 2) LO 8.1b Describe what factors affect our reasoning about the world. Heuristics—shortcuts to increase our thinking efficiency Cognitive biases—predispositions used to interpret experiences Heuristics and biases simplify and reduce the information needed for decision-making. May lead to faulty conclusions LO 8.1

Heuristics vs. algorithms Heuristics: general problem solving strategies that are often useful but not always effective (in football: control line of scrimmage, avoid turnovers, in chess: control center of board.) Algorithms: step by step procedures guaranteed to solve a specific problem (recipe to bake a cake, formula to solve for area of triangle) ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Heuristics and Biases (2 of 2) LO 8 Heuristics and Biases (2 of 2) LO 8.1b Describe what factors affect our reasoning about the world. Common heuristics Representativeness—“common category members” We ignore how common behaviors actually are in a population and commit the base rate fallacy. Is John the druggie a rock star or accountant? Availability—“off the top of my head” We estimate the likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to mind. Confirmation bias: only looking for supportive evidence LO 8.2

Examples of Heuristics 1. Means-end analysis: breaking problem down into series of sub-problems. 2. Analogies: using past experience as model for current problem-solving Research on use of analogies (past experience) contradictory. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Figure 8.4 Functional Fixedness: Dunker’s make a lamp problem The first two problems can be solved using the same formula: Add the amount in the first jug (A), subtract the amount from the second jug (B), and then subtract the amount from the third jug (C) twice (A – B – C– C= Target amount). The third problem requires a different solution. Can you figure it out? If you're stuck, you maybe experiencing a "mental set."

Figure 8.3 Mental Set Problems: Luchins water jar problem LO 8.4

When is past experience helpful to problem solving? 1. Gick & Holyoak (1980) studies of problems solving with and without past experience 2. Chi’s (1985) studies of expertise and problem solving ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Analogy and problem solving Gick and Holyoak (1980) Radiation Problem Suppose you are a doctor faced with a patient who has a malignant tumor in his stomach. It is impossible to operate on the patient, but unless the tumor is destroyed the patient will die. There is a kind of ray that can be used to destroy the tumor. If the rays reach it all at once at a sufficiently high intensity, the tumor will be destroyed. Unfortunately, at this intensity the healthy tissue the rays pass through on the way to the tumor will also be destroyed. At lower intensities the rays are harmless to healthy tissue, but they will not affect the tumor, either. What type of procedure might be used to destroy the tumor with the rays and at the same time avoid destroying the healthy tissue? When give this problem cold, less than 10% were able to solve it.

Analogy and problem solving Gick and Holyoak (1980) Military Problem A small country was ruled from a strong fortress by a dictator. The fortress was situated in the middle of the country, surrounded by farms and villages. Many roads led to the fortress through the countryside. A rebel general vowed to capture the fortress. The general knew that an attack by his entire army would capture the fortress. He gathered his army at the head of one of the roads, ready to launch a full-scale direct attack. However, the general then learned that the dictator had planted mines on each of the roads. The mines were set so that small bodies of men could pass over them safely, since the dictator needed to move his troops and workers to and from the fortress. However, any large force would detonate the mines. Not only would this blow up the road, but it would also destroy many neighboring villages. It therefore seemed impossible to capture the fortress. The general, however, devised a simple plan. He positioned a small detachments of soldiers at the head of different roads and on his order they march along different roads to the fortress and arrived at the same time, thereby overthrowing the dictator.

Analogy and problem solving Gick and Holyoak (1980) Analogy was not obvious: only 20% solved the radiation problem when first given the military problem. However, this went up to over 90% when subjects were told that the military problem would be applicable to solving the radiation problem. Lesson: for past experience to be helpful, people must see past superficial content and get to deeper principles or themes

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Problem solving in Physics professors vs. students: Problem categorization ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Problem solving in Physics professors vs. students: Problem categorization ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Problem solving in Physics professors vs. students: Problem categorization ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

How Does Language Work. LO 8 How Does Language Work? LO 8.3a Describe the four levels of analysis that make up language. System of communication shared by community that combines arbitrary symbols, such as words or gestural signs, in rule-based ways to create meaning Allows for communication of information, as well as social and emotional functions Can one person have language? LO 8.5

The Features of Language (1 of 6) LO 8 The Features of Language (1 of 6) LO 8.3a Describe the four levels of analysis that make up language. Highly practiced and automatic process Four levels of analysis must be coordinated: Phonemes Morphemes Syntax Extralinguistic information LO 8.6

The Features of Language (2 of 6) LO 8 The Features of Language (2 of 6) LO 8.3a Describe the four levels of analysis that make up language. Phonemes Categories of sounds that our vocal apparatus produces Smallest units of sound/gesture in language Probably around 100 total; each language only uses a subset ranging from 15 to 60 40 to 45 in English LO 8.6

The Features of Language (3 of 6) LO 8 The Features of Language (3 of 6) LO 8.3a Describe the four levels of analysis that make up language. Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language Convey information about semantics—meaning derived from words and sentences Can be full words (“dog”) or suffixes/prefixes (s, ed) modifiers (“re-”), and other inflections that carry meaning LO 8.6

The Features of Language (4 of 6) LO 8 The Features of Language (4 of 6) LO 8.3a Describe the four levels of analysis that make up language. Syntax The set of rules of a language for constructing sentences Includes word order, morphological markers, and sentence structure Real-world language rarely follows these rules completely. LO 8.6

The Features of Language (5 of 6) LO 8 The Features of Language (5 of 6) LO 8.3a Describe the four levels of analysis that make up language. Extralinguistic information Elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting its meaning Facial expressions, tone of voice, previous statements by others Used to help interpret ambiguous information LO 8.6

The Features of Language (6 of 6) LO 8 The Features of Language (6 of 6) LO 8.3a Describe the four levels of analysis that make up language. Language dialects Variations of the same language used by groups of people from specific geographic areas, social groups, or ethnic backgrounds Use consistent syntax rules, although they may differ from “mainstream” speech “He might could…” “I’m fixin’ to…” LO 8.6

How and Why Did Language Come About. (1 of 2) LO 8 How and Why Did Language Come About? (1 of 2) LO 8.3a Describe the four levels of analysis that make up language. Language requires long learning period, hefty brain power, and other disadvantages. So, its advantages must be particularly useful: Communicating complex ideas Coordinating social interactions Assisting in complex activities LO 8.6

Evolution of language: Do animals have language? Animal species differ in the complexity and type of communication. Scent, visual, vocal Most communication is geared toward mating and aggression. Honeybees and vervet monkeys exemplify sophisticated animal communication systems. Displacement Reference LO 8.9

Nonhuman Animal Communication (2 of 2) LO 8 Nonhuman Animal Communication (2 of 2) LO 8.3d Distinguish human language from nonhuman animal communication. Many attempts to teach animals human language, with mixed results Chimpanzees Bonobos African gray parrot Humans appear unique in our ability to use language in a sophisticated way. LO 8.9

History of Ape language studies Cross-fostering: raising an ape as a human baby 1950’s Keith and Cathy Hayes: Viki project, teaching a chimpanzee to speak. Big disaster. Beatrix and Alan Gardner: Washoe project, teaching an ape sign language ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

History of Ape language studies Francine Patterson and Koko: A gorilla learns sign language Herb Terrace and Nim Chimpsky ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

History of Ape language studies Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and the bonobo Kanzi ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

What do apes know about language? Some elementary syntax Some evidence of displacement 100-200 word vocabulary Use is primarily utilitarian, not for sharing experience; 90% of Kanzi’s utterances are requests/commands About at level 2.5 child ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Theories of Language Development Nature Perspective: language is an inborn capacity that develops primarily by maturation Nurture Perspective: language develops from a complex system of rewards, punishments, and imitation ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Theoretical Accounts of Language Acquisition (1 of 4) LO 8 Theoretical Accounts of Language Acquisition (1 of 4) LO 8.3b Trace the development of language acquisition in children. The imitation account suggests babies hear language used in systematic ways and learn to use language as adults use it (B. F. Skinner) Doesn’t account for generative nature of language Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD) LO 8.7

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) If Chomskian view of language is true then: (1) dedicated brain area, (2) Linguistic universals ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Language Development Prelinguistic Stage: crying, cooing, and babbling Linguistic Stage: single-utterances, telegraphic speech, and learning the rules of grammar ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Pre-linguistic stage: birth to 1 year Children begin learning to recognize their native language before they are born. Babbling during first year allows (6 months) babies to develop control over vocal tracts. At first broad, then narrows Babies also develop phoneme recognition during this time. LO 8.6

Linguistic Stage: begins about 1 year of age Learning words Comprehension precedes production. Recognize words long before they are able to say them Only have a limited ability to coordinate sounds to produce words Recognize own name by 6 months; comprehend other words by 10–12 months Begin to produce words around 1 year of age, with an exponential rate of increase Tend to over- and underextend word meanings early on Syntactic development Refers to combining words into phrases Start off speaking in the one word stage; move to combining two words by two years (telegraphic speech) Can comprehend basic syntax rules before they can display them LO 8.7