Collective goods and regimes Environment Collective goods and regimes

Collective goods are hard to provide Free rider problem Everyone has individual incentive to “consume” Collective welfare suffers “Tragedy of commons” Garrett Hardin A neo Malthusian argues that individual rationality will doom the collective good

Tragedy of the Commons

Averting the tragedy? Legal-coercive* Positive sanctions* Privatize* Educate Institutions* Unilateral action* (Often solutions are a mix of two or more)

Legal-coercive Regimes & Conventions For example: CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species There is a legal framework, but punishment is indirect and must be wielded by states, typically through economic sanctions Regimes are defined as a combination of the actors involved together with the ideas they share about problems and the institutions they create to deal with them.

Process of regime building 4. Strengthening 3. Bargaining 2. Fact finding 1. Issue definition

1. Issue definition Agenda created: by one or more states by an IGO eg 1977 Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) conference sponsored by UNEP by an NGO Framework Climate Change Ctee has a long list

2. Fact finding Sometimes coordinated by IGO May be challenged and bargained UNEP set up coordinating committee to evaluate scientific research on ozone

3. Bargaining Outcomes depend on strength of coalitions Most issues have a leading group & veto group If consensus not reached: regime may go ahead without key players … but weak eg Climate Change and US “veto”

4. Strengthening Continuous process Science may help “Protocol” to set targets/timetable Convention Review Conference may push for stronger action

Ozone Depletion 1985 Vienna Convention strengthened by 1987 Montreal Protocol “far-reaching restrictions” “precautionary principle” Industrial countries agreed to cut CFCs in half by 1998

Strengthening ozone regime 1990 London : full end to CFCs and HCFCs by 2000 interim multilateral fund $240m for LDCs 1993 Bangkok: phase out bromide 1995 Vienna: methyl bromide

Still strengthening 1997 Montreal: 9th review of protocol celebrating 10th anniversary but 1996 Antarctic hole bigger than ever illegal trade in ODS ozone depleting substances worries about underfunding

Why strong ozone regime? Solutions simple cut cfc production Clear compliance mechanisms monitor production and trade 1/5 CFC trade in black market in 1995 Effective leadership UNEP Tolba External shocks or crises Image of ozone layer + cancer rates

Image of ozone depletion

Climate Change issue definition A weaker image Clearly exponential But proof of human cause?

Climate regime? No simple solutions CO2 emissions linked to overall economic activity Have to challenge assumptions of capitalist growth Modest targets and uneven compliance

Climate change politics Global climate, but sovereign interests Lead group: EU Two veto coalitions: LDCs [especially India & China] JUSCANZ Japan, US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand BBC chart on emissions

Kyoto 1997: Weak Conference of Parties [COP] to Framework Convention on Climate Change industrialized countries to cut by 5.2% from 1990 levels between 2008-2012 Range of targets +8% for Australia, -8% for Europe (on average) Trading in emissions credits allowed Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Allows companies to get credits for clean energy projects in LDCS Carbon sinks Credits for forests!

Kyoto -> compromise No LDCs commitments to reduce emissions No reporting, enforcement, penalties Reductions agreed were too low to have effect! No Rules/cap on emissions trading

Kyoto eroding George Bush pulled US out March 2001 newsclip US voluntary approach (Pew Centre) Russian ratification needed to give Kyoto legal status Framework Convention on Climate Change ratification “barometer”

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Latin treaty text Common name search Appendix I,II,III Lists of Parties Biannual Conference Sample proceedings Article VIII measures penalize trade/possession confiscation reimburse record report

Criticism of CITES Ineffective Drives trade underground “Reserves” are like zoos Tourism cost-benefit

Example of bargaining: ivory 1988 WWF and Conservation international called for world ban NGOs wanted elephants on Appendix I Sustainable: 50m tons ivory per yr (consumption 770m tons/yr)

CITES Ivory Aftermath Japan expected to veto, but complied under pressure from NGOs, US & EU and cut all imports Ivory prices plunged 90% Southern Africa not an effective veto coalition: market forces led to change Some illegal trade persists

Whales weak initial regime permitted virtually unregulated exploitation of an endangered species Now “global conservation regime” despite veto coalition led by Japan

International Whaling Commission IWC began as a “Whalers club” Secret meetings “Quotas” allowed kill rate to double 1951-62 World Council of Whalers No consensus on facts IWC “science” committee supported kills Meanwhile, blue whale almost extinct

Action US lead state 1972 moratorium at Stockholm conference Impelled by own 1969 Endangered Species Act Declared 8 species endangered in 1970 1972 moratorium at Stockholm conference IWC defeated similar proposal 6-4 (4 abstentions) Veto coalition: Norway, Japan, USSR, Iceland, Chile, Peru Non-whaling states were recruited onto IWC Created ¾ majority needed for IWC ban

Veto coalition action commercial whaling ended by 1987/88 But Japan, Iceland & Norway began “scientific” hunt No US response no sanctions on Japan (trade reprisals?) No sanctions on Iceland (USAF base Reykjavik) Consumer action achieved halt until 1991 USSR continued as before, with false reports

Regime strengthened? 1994 IWC meeting: long-term ban on whaling below 40 degrees south Sanctuary for 90% estimated 3.5m remaining great whales Japan and Norway defy ban 1997 Norway killed 5x as many as in 1992 Japan hunting in Antarctic sanctuary 300 minkes a year “scientific” catch Sales of $50m in 1997!

Regime change 1997 Ireland proposed ending ban and bringing commercial whaling back under “Revised Management Procedure” Allow catches up to 1% estimated population Whale population estimates NGOs worried that Irish plan would increase commercial whaling Urged moratorium for 50 yrs

Dilemma To endorse commercial whaling and reduce kill Or to ban it, while whale kills are still rising

Climate Links IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change BBC quiz! Speech by Chair at 20th Session Feb ‘03 Reports BBC quiz! UNFCC

Other Links UNEP WMO WWF Greenpeace Sierra Club conventions World Me. Org WWF World Wildlife Fund Greenpeace Sierra Club