Part 4 Reading Critically Chapter 10 Bias

Good critical readers must be aware of their own biases and the biases of others.   A bias is a strong leaning in either a positive or negative direction. A bias is very similar to a prejudice. Sometimes writers simply state their biases; however, most biases are implied by the writer.

Subjective material generally places more emphasis on opinions than facts, and it is more likely to display a strong bias.   A critical reader will study the author’s line of reasoning, notice whether opinions are supported by facts and reasons, and then decide if the author’s bias has hindered the making of a good argument.

As you are reading textbook material, keep in mind that the authors also have biases.   Their biases will influence the way they present the material. Although textbooks primarily deal with factual material, authors must decide what facts to include and omit, and what facts to emphasize. Pay attention to the author’s tone and choice of words to determine if a bias is present. Such caution is especially important when the material deals with a controversial issue.

Denotative and Connotative Language   When you look a word up in the dictionary, you are determining its exact meaning without the suggestions or implications that it may have taken on. This is called the denotative meaning of a word.

The connotative meaning of a word refers to the ideas or feelings suggested by the word.   Words that have the same denotative meaning can have much different connotative meanings. The connotation of a word can tell you a lot about what the speaker of the word means by it. Not all words have connotative meanings.

Words that are heavily connotative are often referred to as “loaded” or “emotionally charged.”   Writers who have a particular point of view and want to persuade you to accept that view often make use of loaded words or phrases. Thus subjective material is more likely to rely on connotative, rather than denotative, language, and it is more likely to display a strong bias.

Euphemism The word euphemism is derived from the Greek word euphemos,   The word euphemism is derived from the Greek word euphemos, meaning “to use a good word for an evil or unfavorable word.” The Greek prefix eu means “good,” and phemi means “speak.”

When someone substitutes an inoffensive word or phrase for one that could be offensive to someone, they are using a euphemism.   Most of the time euphemisms are used to be polite or to avoid controversy. Euphemisms can also be used to purposely mislead and obscure the truth.

Webster’s dictionary defines propaganda as Propaganda Devices   Webster’s dictionary defines propaganda as “a systematic effort to promote a particular cause or point of view.” Thus by definition, propaganda is not evil or deceptive. However, some of the techniques used are questionable because they appeal primarily to our emotions rather than to our intellect.

The slogan is equally effective in advertising Slogans The slogan is equally effective in advertising and political campaigns. In the latter, it usually takes the form of a chant that can unite large crowds into one common emotion.

Name-Calling Name-calling is a device used widely in political and ideological battles as well as in commercial advertising campaigns. It tries to make us form a judgment without examining the evidence on which it should be based. Propagandists appeal to our instincts of hate and fear. They do this by giving bad names to those individuals, groups, nations, races, or consumer products that they would like us to condemn or reject.

Glittering Generalities Glittering generalities are broad, widely accepted ideals and virtuous words that are used to sell a point of view. Like name-calling, glittering generalities urge us to accept and approve something without examination.

use symbols of authority, prestige, and respect Transfer   Some advertisements use symbols of authority, prestige, and respect that arouse emotions to sell a cause, a candidate, or a consumer product through the process of subconscious transfer or association.

other well-respected persons. Testimonial A testimonial is an endorsement of a product or an individual by celebrities or other well-respected persons.

The plain-folks device creates the impression that the advertisers or political candidates are just ordinary folks like you and me.

Card stacking is the technique by which facts, illustrations, and statements are carefully selected to make the maximum impact and sometimes give misleading impressions. The cliché that “statistics don’t lie, but you can lie with statistics” applies to this technique.

Bandwagon The bandwagon device is based on the idea that “if everybody else is doing it, so should you.” “Jump on the bandwagon,” “follow the crowd,” “be the first in your neighborhood,” and “don’t throw your vote away by voting for a loser” are clichés associated with this device. The psychology behind this technique makes political polling important at election time. The fact that each candidate needs to project the image that he or she is a winner often leads to some conflicting polling results.

We don’t ordinarily think of sex as a propaganda device, Sex Appeal We don’t ordinarily think of sex as a propaganda device, but it sells products in many ways. In recent years, emotional appeals based on sex have been used more and more in product advertising. Sex appeal is used to stimulate emotions and sell consumer products to both sexes.

Music The last device in our list is also seldom thought of as a propaganda device, yet it is one of the most effective techniques in radio and television commercials. Music is an excellent tool for creating specific moods, and it can be used effectively for product identification.

Chapter 10 Test Taking Tip— Improving Your Performance on Essay Tests Organizing your answer   Once you have recalled the material you need to answer an essay question, you need to begin thinking about how to organize your answer. Knowing the information goes a long way toward writing a good essay, but how you organize the information also counts. This is especially true for “big picture” essay questions.

Your organization will show the teacher how well you understand the relationships among ideas and concepts.   A traditional essay has an introduction, three paragraphs of development, and a conclusion. This does not mean that a good essay cannot have more or less than three paragraphs, but ordinarily an essay that is three paragraphs long will say what needs to be said without saying too much.

Usually the three paragraphs of the traditional essay are developed in the same order in which their main ideas are mentioned in the introductory statement.   Remember that each paragraph should develop only one main idea. Often the secret to writing a good essay is constructing a good introductory statement, because once you have a good introductory statement, the rest of the essay follows from it. This is one reason it makes sense to do some thinking and organizing before you start to write.

To write a good introductory statement, it sometimes helps to take the question and rearrange it into an introductory statement.