CHAPTER 9 BODY ORGANIZATION

Chapter 9 Learning Objectives Identify the meaning of 10 or more terms relating to the organization of the body. Describe the properties of life. Label the structures of the cell, and describe the function of each.

Chapter 9 Learning Objectives Describe the organization of the body from the smallest unit to the largest. Describe organs of the body in relation to the plane, region, or cavity of location. Describe five or more disorders resulting from variations or defects in cellular organization.

Anatomy and Physiology Four basic properties of life Reception Ability of the organism to control its actions and respond to changes in the environment Metabolism Process of taking in and using nutrients to produce energy and growth Reproduction Ability to reproduce offspring to continue the species Organization Division of the organism into distinct parts to perform these functions Discuss the four basic properties of life.

Anatomy Organization of body structures on five levels: Cells: smallest units of life Tissues: combinations of similar cells Organs: collections of tissues working together to perform a function Body system: organs that work together to provide a major body function Organism: being that results when the body systems work together to maintain life Discuss each of the five levels of body structure organization, and have the students give examples of each level.

Cell Structure Major structures of a cell are called organelles Nucleus Controls activity of the cell Directs reproduction Cytoplasm Semifluid material that surrounds cell parts Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cell Mitochondria Produce the energy used for cellular processes While discussing the major structures of a cell, refer to Slide 8 or to Figure 9-1 in the students’ textbooks.

Cell Structure Cell membrane Lysosomes Ribosomes Golgi apparatus Surrounds the cell Controls which substances enter and leave the cell Lysosomes Help to break down, or digest, molecules Ribosomes Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum Work to produce protein for the cell structures Golgi apparatus Makes glycoproteins, which help transport proteins made by the ribosomes out of the cell While discussing the major structures of a cell, refer to Slide 8 or to Figure 9-1 in the students’ textbooks.

Structures of the Cell FIGURE 9-1 The structures of the cell. (From Patton KT, Thibodeau GA: Anatomy & physiology, ed 7, St. Louis, 2010, Mosby.)

Homeostasis Tendency of a cell or the whole organism to maintain a state of balance Refers to maintaining constancy of the internal milieu or fluid surrounding cells of the organism Composition of the tissue fluid that makes up internal environment is kept constant. Molecules pass in and out of the cell to maintain balance. Homeo means “the same.” Stasis means “staying.” Homeostasis is “the state of balance” of trying to keep the body staying the same. All body systems interact to create homeostasis in the body.

Homeostasis Physiologic components of homeostasis or state of balance Body temperature Gas exchange pH values Water and ion balance Volume and pressure of fluid Waste removal Nutrient intake

Homeostasis and Body Systems Discuss the mechanisms of homeostasis in each of the body systems.

Electrolytes Electrolytes are compounds made of charged particles called ions Ions can conduct electrical current in water or in the cytoplasm of a cell Positive charge (cation) creates an acid Negative charge (anion) creates a base Different electrolytes have special functions. While discussing electrolytes, refer to Slide 13 or Figure 9-2 in the students’ textbooks.

Electrolytes of the Body

pH The pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much acid or base is present. Each tissue has a normal pH value. Cells do not function properly if the normal pH is not maintained for that area of the body. Refer to Slide 15 or to Figure 9-2 in the students’ textbooks while discussing pH .

pH FIGURE 9-2 The body’s pH. The body must maintain normal pH levels to function properly.

Tissue Types Four main tissue types Epithelial tissue Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of cavities and organs Connective tissue Formed by a protein Includes soft tissues, such as fat and blood cells, and hard tissues, such as bones, ligaments, and cartilage Ask the students to identify examples of each tissue type.

Tissue Types Muscle tissue Nervous tissue Made of protein fibers Has the unique property of shortening to produce movement Nervous tissue Composed largely of specialized cells called neurons

Body Systems A body system is a group of related organs. Body systems together accomplish functions necessary to maintain and support life. There are 12 body systems. Stress the importance of understanding that all body systems work together to maintain homeostasis.

Body Systems Integumentary system Cardiovascular system Covers the body Protects other body systems Cardiovascular system Transports oxygen and nutrients to all body parts Removes waste products Identify and briefly discuss the organs in integumentary and cardiovascular systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 10 and 11.

Body Systems Circulatory system Respiratory system Skeletal system Includes the blood and lymph that move throughout the body Respiratory system Exchanges gases between the air and blood Skeletal system Provides body support and protection Identify and briefly discuss the organs in the circulatory, respiratory, and skeletal systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 12, 13, and 14.

Body Systems Muscular system Digestive system Allows the body to move Controls movements within the body Digestive system Processes food Eliminates food waste Identify and briefly discuss the organs in the muscular and digestive systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 15 and 16.

Body Systems Urinary system Endocrine system Nervous system Filters the blood Removes liquid wastes Endocrine system Coordinates body functions through hormones Nervous system Regulates the environment Directs the activities of other body systems Identify and briefly discuss the organs in the urinary, endocrine, and nervous systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 17, 18, and 19.

Body Systems Sensory system Reproductive system Perceives the environment Sends messages to and from the brain Reproductive system Provides for human reproduction Identify and briefly discuss the organs in the sensory and reproductive systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 20 and 21.

Anatomic Position Anatomic position is the standard position of the body used to describe the location of the anatomy. A person assumes an erect standing position with Mouth closed Eyes and head facing forward Feet slightly apart and toes facing forward Arms close to the body, with palms facing forward and fingers extended Have the students practice standing in the correct anatomic position.

Anatomic Position FIGURE 9-4 Anatomic position. (From Sorrentino S: Mosby’s text for nursing assistants, ed 7. St Louis, 2008, Mosby.)

Body Planes Three planes are used to describe the body. Coronal or frontal Separates the front and back of the body Transverse Divides the upper and lower body Sagittal Divides the body into right and left sides Ask the students to identify the parts of the body in the frontal plane. Ask the students to identify the parts of the body in the sagittal plane. Ask the students to identify the parts of the body in the transverse plane.

Body Planes Location of organs is described in relation to these planes: Inferior (below) Superior (above) Medial (close to) Lateral (away from) Anterior or ventral (in front of) Posterior or dorsal (behind) Other terms used to indicate where one organ attaches to another: Proximal (close to) Distal (away from) Discuss body planes, making sure students understand the terms inferior, superior, medial, lateral, anterior/ventral, and posterior/dorsal. Ask the students to identify (using proximal and distal terminology where applicable) the following: What organs are located in the inferior plane? What organs are located in the superior plane? What organs are located in the medial plane? What organs are located in the lateral plane? What organs are located in the anterior/ventral plane? What organs are located in the posterior/dorsal plane?

Body Planes FIGURE 9-5 Body planes. A, Coronal. B, Transverse. C, Sagittal.

Body Cavities Five body cavities Thoracic Abdominal Pelvic Cranial Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels Abdominal Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneys Pelvic Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum Cranial Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glands Spinal Houses the spinal cord and nerves Discuss each of the five body cavities and what each contains. While discussing, refer to Slide 30 or Figure 9-6 in the textbook.

Body Cavities FIGURE 9-6 Cavities of the body.

Body Regions Abdominal and pelvic cavities are described in terms of nine regions: Right hypochondriac Epigastric Left hypochondriac Right lumbar Umbilical Left lumbar Right inguinal Hypogastric Left inguinal While discussing each of the body regions, refer to Slide 32 or Figure 9-7 in the students’ textbook.

Body Regions FIGURE 9-7 Body regions. 1, Right hypochondriac. 2, Epigastric. 3, Left hypochondriac. 4, Right lumbar. 5, Umbilical. 6, Left lumbar. 7, Right inguinal. 8, Hypogastric. 9, Left inguinal. (From Patton KT, Thibodeau GA: Anatomy & physiology, ed 7, St Louis, 2010, Mosby.)

Abdominal Quadrants Four quadrants Right upper Right lower Left upper Left lower While discussing the four abdominal quadrants, refer to Slide 34 or Figure 9-8 in the students’ textbook.

Abdominal Quadrants FIGURE 9-8 Division of the abdomen into four quadrants. Diagram shows relationship of internal organs to the four abdominopelvic quadrants: 1, right upper quadrant (RUQ); 2, left upper quadrant (LUQ); 3, right lower quadrant (RLQ); 4, left lower quadrant (LLQ). (From Patton KT, Thibodeau GA: Anatomy & physiology, ed 7, St Louis, 2010, Mosby.)

Cell Function Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to reproduce, creating an identical replica with the same chromosomes. Each cell (except gametes) contains 46 chromosomes. All chromosomes (except sex chromosomes X and Y) are paired and called homologous autosomes.

Cell Function Meiosis Cell divides into two parts, with each containing only one half of the chromosomes Part of the reproduction process Results in the formation of sex cells (gametes) Fertilization is the combination of two gametes with chromosomes from different parents to form one cell. Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the chromosome of either parent.

Cell Function Heredity Heredity is genetic transmission of particular characteristics (traits) from parent to offspring. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the biologic molecule that contains instructions for producing these characteristics. In the cell, strands of DNA are packaged into chromosomes, which contain segments called genes.

Cell Function Chromosomes Genotype Made of threadlike strands of DNA Contain 30,000 to 40,000 genes Genotype Genetic information configured in chromosomes Recessive genes Dominant genes Heterozygous pattern Two genes that are different on the chromosome pair Homozygous pattern Two genes that are alike on the chromosome pair

Cell Function Phenotype Trait or appearance that results from the genotype Genetic information carried on all chromosomes is responsible for Development of all body cells Formation of tissues, organs, and body systems

Karyotype FIGURE 9-10 The karyotype is an organized picture of the chromosomes. (Courtesy Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N.Y.)

Cell Formation Diseases Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause many genetic disorders, which may be Hereditary (inherited) Sporadic (acquired) Abnormalities may result when there is a mutation of one or more genes.

Cell Formation Diseases More than 4000 genetic disorders identified Most disorders are caused by more than one gene variation and environmental effect. Mulitifactorial genetic disorder (MFGD) Not everyone with a gene variant develops the disorder.

Causes of Genetic Disorders

Mapped Genetic Disorders

Cell Formation Diseases Cancer Uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that tend to spread (metastasize) and invade the tissues around them Classified in five groups Carcinomas Leukemia Sarcomas Lymphomas Adenomas

Five Groups of Cancer Carcinomas Leukemia Sarcomas Mutated cells that cover internal or external parts of the body Leukemia Found in the blood and starts in bone marrow Sarcomas Found in connective tissue such as bones, muscle, fat, and cartilage

Five Groups of Cancer Lymphomas Adenomas Start in the lymph nodes and immune system tissues Adenomas Affect thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, and other glandular tissues

Cancer Common sites for development of cancer Lungs Breast Colon Uterus Oral cavity Bone marrow

Warning Signs of Cancer

Cancer Cancer results from a mistake or mutation in a single cell’s division. Cell division is uncontrolled. More than 80% of cancer cases are related to smoking or exposure to chemicals, radiation, and ultraviolet light (e.g., sun, tanning beds). Some types are related to viral infections.

Factors Associated with Cancer

Inherited Cancers

Issues and Innovations Genetic engineering Genetic abnormalities cause 4000 disorders. Advanced techniques and procedures can identify abnormal genes in the unborn fetus. Chorionic villus sampling Preimplantation diagnosis Gene splicing

Issues and Innovations Cancer treatments Immunotherapy Chemicals isolated from bacteria infected with the cancer Killed suspensions of bacteria Biologic substances that harm tumors Interferon Interleukin Tumor necrosis factors Growth factors Discuss each of the types of cancer treatments. Refer to Slide 55 or Box 9-4 in the students’ textbooks.

Types of Cancer Treatments Discuss each of the types of cancer treatments. Refer to Slide 55 or Box 9-4 in the students’ textbooks.

Issues and Innovations Cancer treatments Lasers Destroy cancerous cells Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology) Hyperthermia (increase in temperature) Used in combination with radiation therapy to treat some tumors

Summary Properties of life Structures of the cell Reception Metabolism Reproduction Organization Structures of the cell Nucleus Cytoplasm Cell membrane

Summary Organization of the body Cells combine to make tissues. Tissues combine to make organs. Organs combine to make a body system. Combined body systems make an organism. The brain is located superior to the heart, which is anterior to the spinal cord.

Summary Disorders resulting from defects in cell organization Cleft lip Clubfoot Cystic fibrosis Down syndrome Huntington’s disease