Chapter 8: Trait Aspects of Personality

Trait and Skill Approach Analogy Humans are clusters of temperaments, traits, and skills

Trait and Skill Approach Advantages Simplifies personality to a small number of basic dimensions Looks for a deeper consistency underlying behaviors Good assessment techniques Allows for comparisons between individuals

Trait and Skill Approach Limits May reach too far trying to capture the individual in a few ways--oversimplification May label people on the basis of test scores Sometimes underestimates variability across situations May underestimate the influence of unconscious motives and early experience

Trait and Skill Approach View of free will Allows for free will at the margins, after predispositions and motives exert their influence

Trait and Skill Approach Common assessment techniques Factor analysis, self-report, testing of styles and skills, document analysis, behavioral observation, interviews

Trait and Skill Approach Implications for therapy If much of personality is structured around a small number of key dispositions then we can change our goals and orientations but probably not our basic dispositional “natures”

History of Trait Approaches Hippocrates' bodily humors

History of Trait Approaches Character descriptions Theophrastus’ “Penurious Man” (over 2000 years ago) Charles Darwin Individual differences are a topic for scientific study Individual differences can arise through evolutionary processes Francis Galton Measurement of human abilities-Intelligence testing

Beginnings of the Modern Trait Approach—Carl Jung Typology Small number of “types” Each person fits one “type” best 8 Types (4 functions x 2 attitudes) Functions: Sensing, Thinking, Feeling, Intuiting Attitudes: Extroversion, Introversion Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Everybody can have a 4 letter code – that would be your type (one from each below) Extroversion (E) --- Introversion (I) Do you recharge your energy via external contact & activity (Extroversion) or spending time in your inner space (Introversion)? Intuition (N) --- Sensing (S) Do you rely on your inner voice (Intuition) or observation (Sensing)? Thinking (T) --- Feeling (F) When making decisions, what do you rely most on?  Your thoughts or your feelings? Judgement (J) --- Perception (P) Do you tend to set schedules and organize your life (Judgement), or do you tend to leave the options open and see what happens (Perception)?

Raymond B. Cattell Used (and refined) factor analysis data-driven, not theory-driven reduced many different traits to sixteen trait clusters Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF) Collected many different types of data Q-data T-data L-data

Typical Questions in a 16PF Type Personality Test 1. Do you like to talk to strangers? 2.Do you consider yourself to be shy? 3.Do you like parties? 4.Do you feel bad about meeting new people? 5.Do you easily get bored? 6.Do you like detailed work? 7.Do you find it easy to concentrate on such work as proofreading? 8.Are you a perfectionist?

Primary Scales Factor A: Reserved-Warm Factor B: Concrete-Abstract Factor C: Emotionally Reactive-Stable Factor D: Low Activity-High Activity (Child Only) Factor E: Deferential-Dominant Factor F: (Liveliness) Serious-Enthusiastic Factor G: Nonconforming- Dutiful

Primary Scales Con’t Factor H: Shy-Socially Bold Factor I: Objective, Unsentimental-Sensitive Factor J: Low Attention Seeking-Internally Oriented (Child Only) Factor L: Trusting-Suspicious, Skeptical Factor M: Workable Oriented-Idea Oriented Factor N: Forthright- Private, Discreet (Tact)

Primary Scales Con’t Factor O: Self-Assured-Apprehensive Factor Q1: Attached to Familiar-Open to Change Factor Q2: Group Oriented-Self Reliant Factor Q3: Tolerates Disorder-Self Disciplined, Perfectionistic Factor Q4: Relaxed, Placid-Tense (Muscle), High Energy, Impatient

Secondary Factor Equations 1 Extravertion: (.3A+.3F+.2H-.3N-.3Q2+4.4) Anxiety: (-.4C+.3L+.4O+.4Q4+1.65) Self-Control: (-.2F+.4G-.3M+.4Q3+3.85) Independence: (.6E+.3H+.2L+.3Q1-2.2) Tough-Mindedness: (-.2A-.5I-.3M- .5Q1+13.75)

Most companies use the following three: Extraversion - Introversion. Level of anxiety. Level of Tough-mindedness/Self- confidence.

Gordon Allport Personality: Each person has unique qualities “The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought” Each person has unique qualities Philosophical, humanistic, scholarly approach

Gordon Allport Regularities in behavior arise because The individual views many situations and stimuli in the same way Many of the individual’s behaviors are similar in their meaning Functionally equivalent

Gordon Allport He recognizes that some traits are hereditary, but these are shaped via learning Uniqueness is derived from the infinite number of genetic combinations and environment (learning) Studies the ‘normal’ and the ‘individual’ , not individuals or groups of individuals with pathology.

Gordon Allport Common Traits Individual Traits Proprium – unique self Due to biological heritage and shared culture, there are some common traits e.g., dominance in American culture Individual Traits Personal dispositions: unique to the individual Proprium – unique self The core of personality

Gordon Allport – Where does proprium come from? FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY of MOTIVES (…cognitive processes; our conscious plans and intentions are the most important…) and behaviors Motivation occurs independent from past experience (differs here from Jung, Freud, Skinner etc.) – currents interests, attitudes, life style determines motivation Personality is not constrained by what happened in the past discrete childhood and adulthood personalities Motives of an adult is independent from childhood Proprium (unique self): propriate, level of functional autonomy that related to values, self-interests, and lifestyle We keep the motives that would improve self-esteem, we want mastery, we want organized consistent integrated sense of self, Developed in stages, as a result of infant-mother bond as a source of affection and security – so childhood and adulthood can separate for functional autonomy

Gordon Allport – Where does proprium come from? FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY of MOTIVES (…cognitive processes; our conscious plans and intentions are the most important…) and behaviors Other low-level, routine, habitual behaviors are part of perseverative functional autonomy ---Not all behavior is functionally autonomous like reflexes, biological needs

Gordon Allport Individual Traits: Personal dispositions In line with goals, motives, or styles Cardinal dispositions (ruling passions) Most pervasive traits Central dispositions (fundamental qualities) Secondary dispositions (Least important, displayed inconsistently)

Gordon Allport Method of data collection: Idiographic methods Take into account each person’s uniqueness Dairies, interviews, Q-sorts, etc. Compensate for the limitations of nomothetic methods

R. B. Cattell and Allport Cattell: 1/3 of our ‘person’ is determined by genetics, 2/3 social/environmental influences except for intelligence and timidity ALLPORT: also believes that genetics influence certain traits although not all: look at his ‘common traits’ Person X environment interaction Same in Allport and Cattell Cattell: PAST AND PRESENT experiences are the focus Allport pays more attention to PRESENT

The Big Five (McCrae & Costa) Extroversion (Surgency) Sociability, warmth, assertiveness Agreeableness Straightforwardness, trust, altruism, modesty Conscientiousness (Lack of Impulsivity) Competence, persistence, prudence Neuroticism (Emotional Instability) Anxiety, hostility, depression, vulnerability Openness (Openness to Experience, Culture, Intellect) Imagination, aesthetic sense, curiosity

Assessing the Big Five Extroversion items: 1. I talk a lot. Not true of me Very true of me 1 2 3 4 5 Extroversion items: 1. I talk a lot. 2. I am quiet around strangers (reverse coded item). 3. I am the life of the party.

Assessing the Big Five Agreeableness items: Not true of me Very true of me 1 2 3 4 5 Agreeableness items: 4. I make others feel at ease. 5. I tend to forgive others. 6. I am not much interested in other people's problems (reverse coded).

Assessing the Big Five Conscientiousness items: Not true of me Very true of me 1 2 3 4 5 Conscientiousness items: 7. I am always well-prepared. 8. I persevere with my tasks. 9. I may shirk my duties (reverse coded).

Assessing the Big Five Neuroticism items: 10. I get irritated easily. Not true of me Very true of me 1 2 3 4 5 Neuroticism items: 10. I get irritated easily. 11. I am calm most of the time (reverse coded) 12. I worry a lot.

Assessing the Big Five Openness items: 13. I have many ideas. Not true of me Very true of me 1 2 3 4 5 Openness items: 13. I have many ideas. 14. I prefer concrete to abstract ideas (reverse coded). 15. I don't spend much time reflecting about things (reverse coded).

The Big Five Created through factor analysis Emerged from data, not theory Behavior genetics and cross-cultural research suggest these traits are “real”

The Big Five The Big Five predicts useful and important life outcomes This does not mean there are only five traits These traits are extremely broad and contain narrower traits within them

McCrae & Costa_BIG FIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM_DIAGRAM OF PERSONALITY OBJECTIVE BİOGRAPHY Emotional reactions, shifts in life BEHAVIORS BIOLOGICAL BASES EXTERNAL INFLUENCES, Cultural norms, life events SITUATIONS CHARACTERİSTİC ADAPTATİONS: CULTURALLY CONDITIONED PHENOMENA, Personal strivings and attitudes BASIC TENDENCIES BIG 5 RECTANGLE: CORE CONCEPT OVAL: INTERFACING COMPONENTS SELF-CONCEPT Schemas

Cross-Cultural Consistency & Stability Five Factors in Eastern & Western cultures Differences by culture Stability (more evidence for extraversion and conscientiousness) Childhood to adulthood Early to mid-adulthood Decreases in neuroticism Adolescence to adulthood Also, aggreeablenes and conscientousness increased 40’s to 60’s

Implications for Abnormal Psychology

Eysenck’s Big Three Eysenck different from Allport and Cattle: Just focused on genetics, no consideration of person X situation interaction Stability assumption No change from childhood to adulthood (despite changing experiences and situations) Deterministic

Eysenck’s Big Three Traits are derived from three underlying biological systems Extroversion—outgoingness and assertiveness vs. Introversion Neuroticism—instability and apprehensiveness vs. Emotional Stability Psychoticism—tendency toward psychopathology vs. Impulse control

Dimensions of Personality ACCORDING TO EYSENCK: All related to innate tendencies Research more evidence for extraversion and neuroticism A healthy society needs a combination of individuals with some of each aspect of personality

Extraversion Cortical Arousal E scale: Extraversion ----------------------- Introversion Sociable, lively, active, assertive, sensation-seeking, carefree, venturesome, dominant [Hermetic, reserved in speech, passive, unassertive, stoical (indifferent), reserved, dependent, even-tempered, risk-averse] Cortical Arousal Mixed research results; some genetic basis Introverts Higher base level Avoid excitement Extraverts Lower base level Seek excitement

Neuroticism N scale: Neuroticism -------- Emotional Stability Anxious, depressed, guilt-feelings, low self-esteem, tense, irrational, shy, moody…..unconcerned, happy, without regret, high self-esteem, relaxed, rational, emotional confident, content, controlled. Sympathetic Nervous System Tends to be overreactive Largely inherited Research suggests neurotics work better under stress

Psychoticism (not grounded in reality, low impulse control) P scale: Psychoticism ------- High Impulse Control Aggressive, cold, egocentric, unemphathetic, impersonal, creative [Nonagressive, warm, concerned for others, impulsive, personally involved, considerate, social, creative, empathetic, uncreative, persuadable] Parents Authoritarian & controlling parents Mixed gender findings; some support for criminality

Primary Role of Heredity Compared identical (monozygotic) to fraternal (dizygotic) twins Identical twins more similar Adoption studies show more similarity with biological parents

Consensus in Personality Judgments The importance of consensus in determining the reality of personality traits Friends’ judgments vs. strangers’ judgments (zero acquaintance) Highest agreement for extroversion and conscientiousness

Ashton & Lee: HEXACO Six-Factor Model Agreeableness Tolerant, peaceful, gentle, agreeable Conscientiousness Disciplined, diligent, thorough, precise Openness to Experience Creative, innovative, unconventional Honesty-Humility Sincere, honest, faithful Emotionality Emotional, oversensitive, faithful, anxious Extraversion Outgoing, lively, sociable, cheerful

Motives Internal psychobiological forces that help induce particular behavior patterns Needs Life-Tasks Personal Strivings

Motivation: Henry Murray Murray’s Needs "A need is a construct (a convenient fiction or hypothetical concept) which stands for a force . . . in the brain region, a force which organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation and action in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation. A need is sometimes provoked directly by internal processes of a certain kind . . . but, more frequently (when in a state of readiness) by the occurrence of one of a few commonly effective press [environmental forces]. . . . Thus, it manifests itself by leading the organism to search for or to avoid encountering or, when encountered, to attend and respond to certain kinds of press. . . . Each need is characteristically accompanied by a particular feeling or emotion and tends to use certain modes . . . to further its trend. It may be weak or intense, momentary or enduring. But usually it persists and gives rise to a certain course of overt behavior (or fantasy), which . . . changes the initiating circumstance in such a way as to bring about an end situation which stills (appeases or satisfies) the organism (Murray, 1938, pp. 123- 124)" (Hall &

Assumption by Murray: Behaviour is driven by an internal state of disequilibrium. In other words we have a LACK of something and this drives us. We are dissatisfied and we desire something. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2012)

Motivation: Henry Murray Murray’s Needs Need for Achievement: n Ach The need to succeed on tasks that are set out by society Need for Affiliation: N Aff The need to draw near and win the affection of others

Motivation: Henry Murray Need for Power: n Power The need to seek positions and offices in which one can exert control over others Need for Exhibition n Exh The need to show one’s self before others and to entertain, amuse, shock, and excite others

Motivation changes how we see the world Differing motivations can change our perceptions, even when judging completely objective characteristics such as distance.

Expressive Style Vocal characteristics, facial expressions, body movements, etc. Emotional Expressiveness People differ in their overall expressiveness Expressive people tend to be seen as charismatic and attractive Extroversion and dominance are related to expressiveness

Skills Intelligence Social-Emotional Intelligence Measures vocabulary use, mathematical skills, spatial reasoning, etc. Social-Emotional Intelligence Specific social and emotional abilities in dealing with other people

Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach

Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach

Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach

Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach

Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach