Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer

Social Construction of Gender Gender roles: expectations regarding proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females Most people do not display strictly “masculine” or “feminine” qualities all the time Socially construct behavior so as to create or exaggerate male/female differences

Gender Roles in the United States Gender-Role Socialization Boys must be masculine Active Aggressive Tough Daring Dominant Girls must be feminine Soft Emotional Sweet Submissive

Gender Roles in the United States Gender-Role Socialization (continued) Homophobia: fear of, and prejudice against, homosexuality Adults, older siblings, mass media, religious institutions, and educational institutions exert important influence Parents normally first and most crucial agents of socialization

Gender Roles in the United States Women’s Gender Roles Girls develop feminine self-image by identifying with females and males in their families and neighborhoods and in the media Studies of children’s books published in U.S. in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s found females significantly underrepresented Traditional gender roles have restricted females more than males

Gender Roles in the United States Men’s Gender Roles Attitudes toward parenting changing, but little change in traditional male gender role Males who do not conform to socially constructed gender role face criticism Boys who successfully adapt to cultural masculinity standards may grow up to be inexpressive Multiple masculinities: men play variety of gender roles

Table 34-1: An Experiment in Gender Norm Violation by College Students 7

Gender Roles in the United States Gender and Human Sexuality Impossible to separate sex from gender Over time, social norms regarding sexual behavior have changed as roles changed Metrosexual and bromance Society beginning to accept same-sex couples, bisexuals, and transgendered people

Cross-Cultural Perspective Anthropologists have documented highly diverse constructions of gender Gender stratification requires: Individual socialization into traditional gender roles within family Promotion and support of traditional roles by other social institutions Can see the social construction of gender roles in process in societies strained by war and social upheaval

Sociological Perspectives on Gender Societies dominated my men much more common than those dominated by women Sociological approaches focus on culture rather than biology as determinant of gender differences

Functionalist Perspective Gender differentiation contributes to overall social stability Expressiveness: maintenance of harmony and internal emotional affairs of family Instrumentality: emphasis on tasks, focus on more distant goals, and concern for external relationship between one’s family and social institutions Dividing tasks between spouses functional for the family as a unit

Conflict Perspective Functionalist approach masks underlying power relations between men and women Relationship between females and males traditionally one of unequal power View gender differences as reflection of subjugation of one by another group

Feminist Perspective Engels: women’s subjugation coincided with rise of private property Many contemporary theorists view subordination as part of overall exploitation and injustice inherent in capitalist societies

Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors Matrix of domination: convergence of social forces that contribute to subordinate status of poor, non-White women Feminists have addressed needs of minority women, but these women oppressed more by race and ethnicity Historically, Native Americans stand out as exception to patriarchal tradition in North America

Figure 34-1: Matrix of Domination 15

Interactionist Perspective Interactionists study gender stratification on micro level We “do gender” by reinforcing traditionally masculine and feminine actions Continuing investigation of role of gender in cross-sex conversations (“crosstalk”)

Table 34-2: Sociological Perspectives on Gender 17

Women: The Oppressed Majority Many have difficulty seeing women as subordinate and oppressed Women noticeably underrepresented in U.S. political structure

Sexism and Sex Discrimination Sexism: ideology that one sex is superior to the other Institutional Discrimination: denial of opportunities and equal rights as result of normal operations of society U.S. society run by male-dominated institutions, yet with power comes responsibility and stress

The Status of Women Worldwide In many parts of the world, women still lag far behind men in earnings and in ability to speak out politically Women everywhere suffer from second-class status Women not responding passively In industrialized countries, unequal status seen in division of housework

Figure 35-1: Gender Inequality in Housework 21

Women in the Workforce of the United States Gender bias limits women’s opportunities for employment outside of home and forces them to carry disproportionate burden inside the home

Labor Force Participation Women in paid labor force increased steadily throughout 20th and 21st centuries Glass ceiling: invisible barrier that blocks promotion of a qualified individual because of gender, race, or ethnicity

Compensation Disparity in pay between men and women not explained by women’s career choices Majority of pay gap still not explained by other differences, such as in: Age and degree of formal education Marital status and children at home Specialization Years of experience Hours worked per year

Social Consequences of Women’s Employment Women face challenge juggling work and family Second shift: work outside the home followed by child care and housework Greater amounts of time women put into caring for children and housework take toll on women pursuing careers

Figure 35-2: Trends in U.S. Women’s Participation in the Labor Force, 1890–2011 26

Table 35-1: U.S. Women in Selected Occupations: Women as a Percentage of All Workers in the Occupation 27

Figure 35-3: Why Leave Work? 28

Emergence of a Collective Consciousness Feminism: belief in social, economic, and political equality for women Feminist movement in U.S. born in 1848 Second wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s and came to full force in the 1970s While women generally endorse feminist positions, they do not necessarily accept the label feminist

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: The Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective 1973: U.S. Supreme Court granted women the right to terminate pregnancies Pro-choice groups believe women have the right to make decisions about their bodies Pro-life groups believe life begins at the moment of conception, so abortion is an act of murder

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: The Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective Looking at the Issue Debate following Roe v. Wade revolves around prohibiting abortion Parental notification and consent are especially sensitive issues In U.S., people appear to support right to legal abortion, but many with reservations

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: The Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective Applying Sociology Gender and social class defining issues surrounding abortion Feminists tend to support abortion; anti-abortion activists tend to believe men and women are different Pregnancy and childbirth socially constructed and male-centered Poor have less access to legal abortions Pro-life activists have also focused on limiting abortion at the state level

Figure 35-4: State Abortion-Related Policies, 2000–2014 33

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: The Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective Initiating Policy Supreme Court continues to hear cases Many European nations liberalized abortion laws From 1980s through early 2009, Congress often blocked aid to countries that might use funds to encourage abortion

Figure 35-5: The Global Divide on Abortion

Sociology in the Global Community 34-1: Women in Combat Worldwide Have you or a woman you know experienced combat? If so, describe the challenges and opportunities women faced on or near the battlefield. Do you agree that women should be allowed to serve in combat without restrictions? Explain your reasoning. What do you think will be the military effect of women’s presence in combat roles? Will the Army be stronger or weaker as a result of the new policy? Justify your position.

Sociology in the Global Community 35-1: The Head Scarf and the Veil: Complex Symbols Consider life in a society in which women wear veils. Can you see any advantages, from the woman’s point of view? From the man’s? Do you find the Western emphasis on physical beauty oppressive? If so, in what ways?

Research Today 35-2: Give Me a Male Boss, Please Have you ever worked for a female boss? If so, were you comfortable taking orders from her? Did you notice any differences in the way your boss was treated, compared to men on her level? What might explain the strong preference for a male boss? Do you expect this preference to remain stable or disappear over time? Explain.