Ethics: Theory and Practice Jacques P. Thiroux Keith W. Krasemann

Chapter One The Nature of Morality

Five Branches of Philosophy Epistemology (study of knowledge) Metaphysics (study of the nature of reality) Ethics (study of morality) Aesthetics (study of values in art or beauty) Logic (study of argument and reasoning)

Ethics and Morality Ethics comes from the Greek ethos, meaning character Pertains to the individual character of a person or or persons Morality comes from the Latin moralis, meaning customs or manners Pertains to the relationship between human beings

Amoral and Nonmoral Amoral = having no moral sense, or being indifferent to right and wrong This term can be applied to very few people The complete absence of a sense of right and wrong may be caused by physical trauma to the brain In addition, some criminal types are amoral despite moral education

Amoral and Nonmoral Nonmoral = outside the realm of morality altogether Inanimate objects are neither moral or immoral, but could be used immorally Many areas of study are in themselves neither moral nor immoral

Scientific Approach to the Study of Morality This approach is most often used in the social sciences and, like ethics, deals with human behavior and conduct The emphasis in this approach is empirical

Scientific Approach to the Study of Morality This approach is also descriptive because it involves the observation of human behavior and the description of those observations In this approach, the observers make no value judgments as to what is morally right or wrong

Philosophical Approach to Ethics Normative Ethics Deals with norms (or standards) and prescriptions Goes beyond observation and description and makes normative moral value judgments

Philosophical Approach to Ethics Analytic Ethics Rather than being descriptive or prescriptive, analyzes ethical language and the rational foundations of ethical systems

Synthesis of Approaches The complete study of ethics demands a reasonable synthesis of ethical views Requires the use of descriptive, normative, and metaethical approaches Ethicists draw on data and results of experiments from the natural, physical, and social sciences

Synthesis of Approaches They also must examine their language, logic, and foundations Finally, ethicists should contribute something toward helping all human beings live with each other more meaningfully and more ethically

Morality and its Applications There is a difference between ethics and aesthetics The terms good, bad, right, and wrong can be used in a nonmoral sense, usually in references to how someone or something functions Manners, or etiquette, differs from morality even though the two are related

Four Aspects of the Application of Morality Religious morality is concerned with human beings in relationship to a supernatural being Morality and nature are concerned with human beings in relationship to nature

Four Aspects of the Application of Morality Individual morality is concerned with human beings in relationship to themselves Social morality is concerned with human beings in relationship to other human beings This is the most important category

Who is Morally or Ethically Responsible? At the present time, only humans can be considered to be moral or immoral; therefore, only humans should be considered morally responsible Some recent experiments suggest that in the future certain animals could be taught to be moral

Objective Views of Morality Values come from some supernatural being or beings There are moral laws embedded in nature itself The world and objects in it have value with or without the presence of valuing human beings

Subjective View of Morality In opposition to the objective views, some believe that morality and values reside strictly within human beings and that there are no values or morality outside of them

Criticism of Objective View It is difficult to prove conclusively the existence of any supernatural being(s) or to prove that values exist outside the natural world There is a difference between “natural laws” and “moral laws”

Criticism of Objective View There is no conclusive evidence that “natural moral laws” exist It is impossible to think of things of value without someone valuing them

Criticism of Subjective View Because aspects of the world and nature can be valued whether or not human beings exist, values would not seem to be totally subjective It is true that there are many things in the world, such as art, science, politics, and music that are valued only by human beings, but there are many others that are valuable whether human beings are around or not

The Synthesized View: Values are Both Objective and Subjective Values are determined by three variables: The first variable is the thing of value, or the thing valued The second is a conscious being who values, or the valuer The third is the context or situation in which the valuing takes place

Theory on the Origin of Morality If values are both objective and subjective, it is possible to construct the following theory concerning the origin of morality: It comes from a complex interaction between conscious human beings and material, mental, or emotional “things” in specific contexts It stems from human needs and desires and is based on human emotions and reason

Customary Morality Customary (or traditional) morality is based on custom or tradition This is the first type of morality that we encounter Customary morality is presented to members, often accepted without analysis or critical evaluation, throughout childhood and adult years

Reflective Morality Reflective morality is the careful examination and critical evaluation of all moral issues whether or not they are based on religion, custom, or tradition All customs, traditions, systems of ethics, rules, and ethical theories should be carefully analyzed and critically evaluated before we continue to accept or live by them

Morality and the Law Morality is not necessarily based on law However, the law provides a public statement to guide humans in their behavior and to protect them from doing harm to persons and property

Morality and the Law Some laws have more or less moral impact than others, but the relationship between law and morality is not reciprocal What is moral is not necessarily legal and what is legal is not necessarily moral

Morality and Religion Throughout history, religion served as a powerful institution for getting people to behave morally But, the fact that religion may have preceded formal legal or moral systems, or that it may have provided very powerful and effective sanctions for morality, does not prove that morality must of necessity have a religious basis

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Kohlberg’s theory sets up three distinct levels of moral thinking, and each level is arranged in two stages Preconventional Level The Punishment and Obedience Orientation The Instrumental/Relativist Orientation

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Conventional Level The Interpersonal Concordance The “Law and Order” Orientation Postconventional Level The Social Contract Orientation The Universal-Ethical-Principle Orientation

Preconventional Level Terms like good and bad, or right and wrong are interpreted in terms of either physical or hedonistic consequences of action Stage One: Moral decisions are made in response to authority Stage Two: Moral decision making is conditioned primarily by self-interest

Conventional Level Similar to the customary or traditional morality, which is unreflective and consists in maintaining or conforming to the expectations of others

Conventional Level Stage Three: Conformity with the group, living up to other’s expectations, and earning the approval of others by being “nice” Stage Four: Concerned with maintaining social order for its own sake or as an end in itself

Postconventional Level Also called the autonomous or principled level Requires reflective morality and the ability to effectively engage ethical reasoning apart from, or independently of, group identification and authority

Postconventional Level Stage Five: Understand that there are ends beyond the law and that laws are crafted to bring about these ends; views laws as a social contract Stage Six: Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency

A Working Definition of Morality Morality, or ethics, deals basically with human relationships—how human beings treat other beings so as to promote mutual welfare, growth, creativity, and meaning as they strive for good over bad and right over wrong