Leading Projects: The Human Side of Project Management Gaining Power & Influence © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Gaining Power & Influence: Objectives Understand distinctions between authority, status and influence as they relate to the role of project manager Understand general sources of social power and how that power translates into leader effectiveness Review recent research on sources of influence used by project managers Recognize the role politics plays in meeting project objectives and apply techniques for using political processes constructively and ethically Develop an awareness your own preferences and style with regard to: influencing others responding to others’ efforts to influence you © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Gaining Power & Influence: Objectives Enhance personal and position power Use influence to accomplish exceptional work Neutralize inappropriate influence attempts © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Influence, Power and Politics Power refers to the potential to influence another successfully Change the behavior of an individual in the desired fashion Organizational politics refers to uses of power that enhance or protect one’s own or group’s interests Typically a source of conflict Traditionally characterized as negative Can also be viewed as a neutral and natural part of organizational life Managers need power to accomplish important, non-routine objectives in organizations A. the effective use of power is a critical component in management B. attitudes about power vary from treating it as an unsavory topic that should not be discussed to being obsessed with gaining and using it for personal gains C. Insufficient power or the excessive use of power are both indications of ineffective management. We’ve all heard the expression, “Power corrupts” but it is also important to realize that lack of power can be corrupting too. When people feel powerless they tend to try and optimize whatever little power they may have. Examples include withholding information or strictly adhering to rules (the stereotypical bureaucrat). In both cases the results can be detrimental for people and organizations D. there is a shift in the definition of power from” having authority over others” to “being able to get things done.” This is where influence skills come into play. E. empowerment connotes an adequate amount of power to accomplish unusual work in organizations, along with the self-discipline to not use all the power one possesses F. a persons’ power is determined by two factors - personal attributes and position characteristics. INFLUENCE Influence is the way we translate power into actual results (outcomes). It helps to think of power as potential energy, like a battery and influence is actual energy, like electricity operating a machine. Keep in mind that many powerful people are not influential in the sense of being able to get things done. Negative view of politics – benefit individual at expense of organization; displace legitimate power use sanctioned means for illegitimate ends, use unsanctioned means for legitimate ends social influence refers to attempts to affect another in a desired fashion © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Empowerment Shift from traditional manager to employee Includes sharing the appropriate knowledge and information that employees need to make decisions Shift requires bosses to be coaches and facilitators Requires greater use of expert and referent power Most companies have not really made the shift Empowerment is another concept that is closely related to power and influence. Although it is not the focus of this material it is important for you to understand how it relates Empowerment connotes an adequate amount of power to accomplish unusual work in organizations, along with the self-discipline to not use all the power one possesses A sense of empowerment is important if you expect people to work independently and to take initiative. Managers and employees often run into problems with this concept because Sometimes the limits and expectations of empowerment are not clearly defined Managers are reluctant to relinquish authority, especially when they still retain accountability for outcomes Employees are sometimes reluctant to assume the additional responsibilities and accountabilities that go along with being empowered. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Power: A Stepping-Stone or Stumbling-Block? Empowerment Effective PERSONAL PERFORMANCE Ineffective Inadequate Sufficient Excessive In his case analysis of 90 leaders, researcher Warren Bennis found that those leaders who were successful were the ones who used their power to empower others and accomplish exceptional objectives. As they applied their influence in positive ways, they gained more power and formal organizational authority, creating a positive, upward spiral for their careers. As this figure depicts, both a lack of power and the abuse of power are equally debilitating and counterproductive. To stay on top of the power curve it is important to understand two important and related management skills: (Kanter - lack of power corrupts) the first is gaining power - we will discuss this topic in terms of defining the key types of power managers can possess, the second skill is converting power effectively into interpersonal influence in ways that avoid the abuse of power - we will discuss this topic in terms of describing strategies for influencing others and for neutralizing unwanted influence from others. PERSONAL & POSITIONAL POWER © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Model of Power and Influence Selection of Proper Influence Strategy SOURCES OF PERSONAL POWER: Expertise Personal attraction Effort Legitimacy Power of an Individual Influence over Others SOURCES OF POSITION POWER: Centrality Criticality Visibility Flexibility Relevance This model depicts the relationship between power and influence. It suggests that the extent to which we can influence others depends upon our sources of power. The effectiveness of influence efforts also depends upon the types of influence strategies and techniques that we use. Because influence is a dynamic and interpersonal process, others responses to our influence attempts also impact the eventual results of our influencing efforts Assertive Responses to Inappropriate Influence Attempts Increasing Authority via Upward Influence © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Personal Power Class Exercise 1= Strongly Disagree 2= Disagree 3=Slightly Disagree 4= Slightly Agree 5= Agree 6= Strongly Agree 1. ____ I strive to become highly efficient in my line of work. 2. ____ I am continually upgrading my skills and knowledge. 3. ____ I express friendliness, honesty, and sincerity toward those with whom I work. 4. ____ I strive to enhance my personal appearance. 5. ____ I put forth more effort and take more initiative than expected at work. 6. ____ I work harder than most coworkers. 7. ____ I support organizational ceremonial events and activities. 8. ____ I encourage new members to support important organizational values by both their words and actions. I took these statements from the pre and post test at the beginning of Chapter 5 in Whetten. They make the definitions of the types of personal power more concrete. Please jot down your answers and then sum your scores using the next slide. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Personal Power Responses Higher Total = Greater Use of Personal Power Statements 1 + 2 = EXPERTISE Statements 3 + 4 = ATTRACTION Statements 5 + 6 = EFFORT Statements 7 + 8 = LEGITIMACY Discuss in groups of two: Why is each source of personal power important in your work? What can you do to increase your personal power in each area? See how many people were highest on each type of power and how many were lowest. Then discuss why each is important where you work and what you could do to increase your personal power in each area. Can be a a small group discussion. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

French & Raven’s Power Taxonomy Reward Coercive Legitimate Expert Referent Power French and Raven identified five sources of power that people may possess. Reward power is power derived from one’s ability to provide others with things they desire (e.g. pay, recognition, promotion etc). Coercive power is derived from a person’s ability to punish others or to otherwise cause harm or restriction (e.g. A captors ability to control a prisoner). Legitimate power -power derived from the fact that a person fills a prominent social role (e.g. a police officer, a governor or president). Expert power is power derived form the fact that one possess knowledge, skill or ability that is desired by others. Referent power - is power derived from the fact that another want to be with with or near you (e.g. charismatic appeal, power based upon the fact that others trust you). It is important to realize that these power sources are not mutually exclusive. These power sources also help to stress the point that power is reciprocal. Our ability to influence depends upon others’ willingness to be influenced. For instance, what might constitute referent power to one person might not be considered the same by another person. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Determinants of Personal Power Expertise Personal Attraction Effort Legitimacy While French and Raven were the first to offer a model of different power sources, more recent characterizations of power have broken power types into two broad categories, personal power and position power. They are similar to what French and Raven defined as power. Several personal attributes foster power: Expertise refers to the amount of job-relevant knowledge a person possesses, gained through education or experience. Personal attraction consists of physical appearance, mannerisms, and personality. Extra effort increases power because it suggests an unusual commitment that warrants additional trust. Legitimacy is gained through support of key organizational values (distinctive competence or core competency). © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Determinants of Positional Power Centrality Visibility Flexibility Relevance AFTER: *** DO EXERCISE: “Class Exercise on Position Power” *** Centrality –access to information in a communication network. Criticality – Impact on tasks performed in a work flow. Visibility – Degree to which task performance is seen by influential people in an organization. Flexibility - the amount of discretion vested in a position. Flexible positions foster power because they do not involve close supervision and the requirement to do everything by the book. Relevance – alignment of assigned tasks and organizational priorities. The position power perspective is somewhat derived from Strategic Contingencies theory – this theory posits that the power of an organizational sub-unit depends upon three factors: Its expertise in coping with central problems Its centrality in the work flow Its uniqueness of expertise © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Position Power Exercise Rate your use of each type of position power in your current position. 1 = Very Weak 2= Somewhat Weak 3= Neutral 4 = Somewhat Strong 5= Very Strong A. Centrality _____ (Access to information in a communications network) B. Flexibility _____ (Amount of discretion vested in a position) C. Visibility _____ (Degree to which task performance is seen by influential people in the organization) D. Relevance _____ (Alignment of assigned tasks and organizational priorities) Share your self-assessment ratings with another student. Person 1: Focus on ONE determinant of your position power. Describe why you rated it as you did. Brainstorm ideas and questions to pursue that could lead to increasing your position power. Take notes! Person 2: Your turn! See Word File: “Self Assessment Chapter 5 Position Power.doc” Use handout “Class Exercise on Position Power.” Although all the info is on the screen, if you have a paper copy, people are more likely to take notes – for the debrief. – P. Burke]

Position Power Exercise Share your self-assessment ratings with another student. Person 1: Focus on ONE determinant of your position power. Describe why you rated it as you did. Brainstorm ideas and questions to pursue that could lead to increasing your position power. Take notes! Person 2: Your turn! © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Position Power Exercise Discussion How many people chose: Helpful ideas to increase your power in the area you chose? Uses: A metric for measuring your progress Reminder to maximize multiple sources of power Are you ready for a more powerful position? Can you articulate to management what you want? How can personal power sources maximize your positional power? Centrality Flexibility Visibility Relevance © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Using Power Usually overlap in the way power is exerted Use of one type of power can effect another type (e.g., use of coercive power will reduce referent power) Majority of people prefer expert power most and coercive power least Type of power used depends upon who is being influenced by whom Social exchange theory Idiosyncratic credits Appreciate the fact that power sources can compensate for one another (e.g. what one lacks in legitimacy can be made up by what they possess in terms of expertise). You should also appreciate the fact that power sources are not usually mutually exclusive. At the broadest level, personal and positional power characteristics are both important. Powerful individuals generally score high on both dimensions. Below are two other theoretical perspectives describing why power is important and how it works. Social Exchange Theory – reciprocal exchange and interdependence are central to the human condition. Power relates to how much a person can bring to the exchange process. Leaders can influence by demonstrating value to the group. Specifically, as perceptions of their competence and loyalty increase in the eyes of others with power, their status and own power will increase. Specific scope of competence and loyalty depends upon the group. Idiosyncratic credits (Holland) – Over time by demonstrating loyalty and commitment people obtain credits that allow them to deviate from group norms. These credits are form of power and influence in a group, but these credits are not limitless, eventually they can be exhausted. For instance if a leader consistently acts against group norms or violates trust he/she will use up credits. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Influencing Project Team Members* Sources of Influence/Power correlate with perceived project manager effectiveness Work challenge - things he/she asks me to do are professionally challenging (.41) Technical expertise - the quality of his/her knowledge and advice (.71) Professional integrity - perceived to be professionally ethical (.63) Formal authority - the right to suggest what and when things need to be done; Authority to indirectly influence team members’ boss (.5) This slide reports on one study of power and influence as used by project managers. This survey based investigation asked project team members to indicate the sources of influence used by their project managers. They were also asked to indicate their perceptions of project manager effectiveness. The number in parenthesis indicates the percentage of respondents who agreed that the influence source was important. Notice that professional integrity and technical expertise are most important while formal authority tends to be among the least important. *Sotiru and Wittmer © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Influencing Without Formal Authority PM’s - limited position power Limited status and authority Limited impact on reward and evaluation decisions PM’s must rely on referent power base and influence skills Authority Status Pinto et al recognize that power and influence are important for project management success. They acknowledge however, that project managers are rarely in a position to rely upon formal authority as a source of power. While some projects may offer greater status (e.g. they are highly visible and important) and as a result can be a source of power for Project managers, most often a project’s managers greatest source of power is his or her ability to influence via referent and technical power (e.g. personal power as opposed to position power). Influence

Politics: a Neutral or Natural View Important organizational decisions involve the allocation of resources The decisions process often involves bargaining, negotiating and positioning Organizations are coalitions composed of a variety of self-interested groups Groups differ in terms of goals, values, attitudes, time frames, etc. Given the above conflict is inevitable Because conflict is inevitable power & politics are used to resolve differences One recent large scale study found: Most managers regard politics as a negative and as unnecessarily time consuming. Most managers believe politics is common to all organizations. Most managers believe it is more prevalent to upper managers. Political behavior is more common in certain decision domains, such as structural changes or new system implementations rather than other types of activities like handling grievances. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Project Managers and Politics (Pinto) Understand and Accept: The political nature of organizations WIIFM (What’s in it for me) Conflicts are a reality, and can be beneficial Cultivate appropriate tactics (avoid being shark or dove) Look to advance positional power (level playing field) Politics are a reality in organizational life. At its worst, politics involve personal influence attempts geared toward promoting personal interests. It is important to accept politics as a reality, but that does not mean one has to always succumb to the more corrupted aspects of politics. In their text, Pinto, et al. point out some tactics and influence efforts one should make to better control others use of politics in organizations © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Project Managers and Politics (Pinto) Develop influence skills & personal power base Reputation as an expert Choose Social relationships based upon work needs Develop a network of expert resources Use interest negotiation techniques Demonstrate flexible influence and communication skills Politics are a reality in organizational life. At its worst, politics involve personal influence attempts geared toward promoting personal interests. It is important to accept politics as a reality, but that does not mean one has to always succumb to the more corrupted aspects of politics. In their text, Pinto, et al. point out some tactics and influence efforts one should make to better control others use of politics in organizations © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Characteristics of Political Behaviors Naive Sensible Shark Attitude regarding politics Unpleasant Necessary An opportunity Intent Avoid at all costs Further dept. goals Self-serving Techniques Tell it like it is Network, expand connections Manipulate, use fraud and deceit Favorite tactics None, truth prevails Negotiation, bargaining Bullying, misuse information & people This slides is meant to imply that political processes are a reality . At issue is knowing how to use them constructively and within the bounds of appropriate ethics. The Naïve style implies a tendency to ignore the realities of politics in organizations At the other extreme are shark – this opportunistic approach may at best be characterized as Machiavellian. It implies using power and politics primarily for personal gain. The sensible approach stresses recognizing that politics are a reality and that we must learn to use political relationships constructively as an extension of other aspects of influence and networking © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Political Tactics Gain support of higher power sources Sponsorship, lobbying Alliance or coalition building mutual support/defense Controlling critical resources Money, people, information, expertise Controlling the decision process The short list, decision-criteria Controlling the committee process Agenda, membership, negotiations, etc This slides describes some tools and approaches that are best characterized as political leverage points. Some of these are constructive, some are neutral and some are (at least in my view) unethical. The point is politics in and of itself is not necessarily good or bad. At issues are whether note the ends support some greater good and whether the means are ones that remain within ethical boundaries. In any event, project managers should understand political processes so that they can use them constructively and also avoid being inappropriately manipulated © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson F.L. Harrison (1992) Advanced Project Management: A Structured Approach, 3rd ed. New York: Halstead Press.

Political Tactics Use of positional authority Use of the scientific element (expert power) Deceit and deception Secrecy, hidden agendas, hidden objectives, all things to all people Information Censoring, withholding, distortion Divide and rule , whistle blowing, appeals to common external threats This slides describes some tools and approaches that are best characterized as political leverage points. Some of these are constructive, some are neutral and some are (at least in my view) unethical. The point is politics in and of itself is not necessarily good or bad. At issues are whether note the ends support some greater good and whether the means are ones that remain within ethical boundaries. In any event, project managers should understand political processes so that they can use them constructively and also avoid being inappropriately manipulated © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson F.L. Harrison (1992) Advanced Project Management: A Structured Approach, 3rd ed. New York: Halstead Press.

Using Influence Strategies In sum, Project managers must develop both personal and positional sources of power – and then they must convert power into influence by applying the appropriate influence strategies. Please do the self assessment “Using Influence Strategies” Pages 281-282 in Whetten and Cameron. I have a typed version of this to distribute because not everyone brings their books – it also puts the scoring page together with the instrument which takes less class time to use. See debrief format on later slides – P. Burke file= Self Awareness GAINING POWER AND INFLUENCE CHAPTER 5.doc © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Influence Strategies Retribution - intimidation (pressure) or coercion (threats) Reciprocity - ingratiation (obligate) or bargaining (exchange) Reason - appeal to values (general principles) or presenting facts (merits and needs) Retribution – Force others intimidation (indirect) Coercion (direct) Pressure - using demands, threats or intimidation Reciprocity – Make others want to do something ingratiate/obligate (indirect) Bargaining (direct) Ingratiation - getting someone to do something because they like you Exchange - promising benefits in exchange for compliance Reason – Appeal to personal values (indirect) Present facts/ stress merits and needs (direct) Rational persuasion logical arguments and facts Inspirational appeal appeal to values and ideals Consultation asking for participation in decision making or planning Other tactics that apply to more than one strategy Personal appeal - using friendship and loyalty Coalition building - using or referring to the support of others Legitimating - using authority and policy Managers often start with a rational approach, but when they meet resistance can switch to stronger approach. Under what conditions is forcing approach useful? © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Your Preferences & Skills The Three “R’s” How many people chose each strategy as their first or second choice? Retribution: 1st Choice _____ 2nd Choice _____ Reciprocity: 1st Choice _____ 2nd Choice _____ Reason: 1st Choice _____ 2nd Choice _____ Board how many people had each strategy as a first or second choice. Are people surprised by the diversity of choices? Discussion questions: How did you decide which strategy to use? What strategies do you prefer others to use on you? © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

When to Use Retribution Influencer has complete power Commitment and quality not important Tight time constraints Serious violations Specific, unambiguous requests Resistance to request is likely These next 3 slides are from the Whetten and Cameron ppt files. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

When To Use Reciprocity Needs are specific and short term Established exchange norms exist There is adequate time for negotiating Parties viewed as trustworthy Commitment to broad values not critical Parties mutually dependent © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

When To Use Reason There is adequate time for extensive discussion Common goals/values Parties share mutual respect Parties share ongoing relationship © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Applying Social Influence Tactics in Organizations Research shows that consultation, inspirational appeal, and rational persuasion are most frequent Pressure and legitimizing are less frequently used Upward influence more likely to use ingratiation and appeals with authoritarian bosses but rational approach with participative bosses Tactics used are a function of beliefs about the likely effects of actions This slides lists some general research findings about the use of different influence techniques. Another research finding is that managers often begin with a rational approach, but if they meet resistance, they are likely to switch to a “stronger” tactic for the sake of expediency. There are obviously, appropriate conditions for all three strategies but many subordinates complain that their boss quickly escalates an issue when they experience resistance or disagreement. Keep this fact in mind when you work on the Ann Lyman case. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Neutralizing Influence Attempts Retribution Shift focus from dependence to interdependence Direct confrontation Active resistance Reciprocity Examine intent Confront manipulation tactics Refuse to bargain Reason Explain performance effects Defend your rights Refuse to comply As we have been saying, influencing is a dynamic process. Just as you should be aware of the different types of influencing techniques you should also be familiar with ways of neutralizing and responding to unwanted influence efforts. Retribution -people can rely on retribution primarily when they perceive an imbalance of power (with them having more) Shift focus from dependence to interdependence -stress the fact that you and the other person really are interdependent. Maybe discuss more acceptable means of satisfying the person’s demands confrontation - Stand up for your rights but do so in a way that keeps the focus on the problem, not the person Active resistance - “Fighting fire with fire” is a last resort but is sometimes necessary Reciprocity Examine intent - Ask yourself why someone is offering you the favor/gift. If in doubt about the motives try to turn it down. Confront manipulation tactics - simply drawing attention to quid pro quo tactics can improve your position. It also helps to offer an alternative approach. Refuse to bargain - If steps 1 and 2 have failed, this is your last resort. Reason Explain performance effects - Just because someone presents a compelling argument from their point of view does not mean it is right for you. Acknowledge their needs but explain your position and then work together for alternatives Defend your rights -this strategy typically includes appealing to the others sense of fairness Refuse to comply -again this is a last resort, but hopefully only after attempting to establish a constructive dialogue.As a last resort you

Neutralizing Influence Attempts Retribution Shift focus from dependence to interdependence Direct confrontation Active resistance As we have been saying, influencing is a dynamic process. Just as you should be aware of the different types of influencing techniques you should also be familiar with ways of neutralizing and responding to unwanted influence efforts. Retribution - people can rely on retribution primarily when they perceive an imbalance of power (with them having more) Shift focus from dependence to interdependence - stress the fact that you and the other person really are interdependent. Maybe discuss more acceptable means of satisfying the person’s demands. Confrontation - stand up for your rights, but do so in a way that keeps the focus on the problem, not the person. Active resistance - “Fighting fire with fire” is a last resort but is sometimes necessary. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Neutralizing Influence Attempts Reciprocity Examine intent Confront manipulation tactics Refuse to bargain Reason Explain performance effects Defend your rights Refuse to comply As we have been saying, influencing is a dynamic process. Just as you should be aware of the different types of influencing techniques you should also be familiar with ways of neutralizing and responding to unwanted influence efforts. Reciprocity Examine intent - ask yourself why someone is offering you the favor/gift. If in doubt about the motives try to turn it down. Confront manipulation tactics - simply drawing attention to quid pro quo tactics can improve your position. It also helps to offer an alternative approach. Refuse to bargain - If steps 1 and 2 have failed, this is your last resort. Reason Explain performance effects - just because someone presents a compelling argument from their point of view does not mean it is right for you. Acknowledge their needs but explain your position and then work together for alternatives. Defend your rights - this strategy typically includes appealing to the others sense of fairness. Refuse to comply - again this is a last resort, but hopefully only after attempting to establish a constructive dialogue. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Gaining Power & Influence: Behavioral Guidelines Pat Simpson – role play Page 319 -320 Read only your role Plan your influence tactics (Lynn) Plan your Neutralizing tactics (Pat) One observer for each. Role Play © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson

Gaining Power & Influence: Behavioral Guidelines Enhance your personal power. Increase the centrality and criticality of your position. Increase the latitude and flexibility of your job. Increase the visibility of your job performance. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 36

Gaining Power & Influence: Behavioral Guidelines Increase the relevance of your tasks. Use reason, reciprocity, and retribution influence strategies when and where appropriate. Neutralize reciprocal and retribution influence strategies as needed. Sell your issues to senior managers. Perform in ways that benefit your boss. © Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson