Qualitative Research Methodology Theory and Practice Interviews Observations Case Studies

Learning Outcomes: Theory and Practice Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research Discuss to what extend findings can be generalized from qualitative studies Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research, for example: Purposive sampling Snowball sampling Quota sampling Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative research Explain the effect of triangulation on the creditability/trustworthiness of qualitative research Explain reflexivity in qualitative research

Learning Outcomes: Interviews Evaluate semi-structured, focus group and narrative interviews Discuss considerations involved before, during, and after an interview, for example: Sampling method Data recording Transcription Ethics Debriefing Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on interview transcripts

Learning Outcomes: Observations Evaluate participant, non-participant, naturalistic, over and covert observations Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation, for example: Audience effect Data recording Ethics Debriefing Discuss how researchers analyze data obtained in observational research

Learning Outcomes: Case Studies Evaluate the use of case studies in research Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an organization or group (football team, school, or family) Discuss the extent to which findings can be generalized from a single case study

General Approaches to Research Quantitative vs Qualitative Each method serves a different purpose and is selected depending on what we want to know about behavior; researchers frequently combine both methods

Examples of Quantitative Research Experiments Surveys Examples of Qualitative Research Interviews Observations Case Studies

Quantitative Methods Data in quantitative research: Numbers Operational definition of research and “closed” data in the form of numbers Analysis of data relatively easy: statistical tests Data from many participants and inferential statistics generalization of findings to populations

Qualitative Methods Data in qualitative research: text Naturally occurring and rich data (open for interpretation) Analysis of data often difficult and time consuming Data from few participants  difficult to generalize

Emic vs Etic A qualitative method is an emic approach to understanding behavior which delve into the unique perspective of individuals and/or groups within the culture studied (cultural specific) This sometimes challenges the assumed etics (universal behaviors) which researchers often have at the beginning of research study. Assumes that the underlying psychology mechanisms are subjectively experienced and are very similar cross cultural.

Strengths of Qualitative Research Generates rich data (in depth and subjective) Use for investigating complex and sensitive issues People are studied in real-life settings so there is more ecological validity Approach generates new ideas and theories to deal with real-life problems Researcher and participant are often interacting with each other for longer periods of time

Limitations of Qualitative Research Large amounts of data to analyze Time consuming, takes place over a prolonged period It is usually difficult to generalize results to other settings Interpretation of data may be subjective but reflexivity and creditability checks can reduce bias Participant expectations and researcher bias may influence the research process but reflexivity and creditability checks can reduce bias

Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies Most studies have few participants Sampling is based on selection criteria and not representativeness Goal of data analysis is to understand the subjective experience of participants in the study

Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies Representational Generalization Findings from a study can be applied to populations outside of the study If findings from similar research studies corroborate findings, some degree of generalization may be possible Example: interview data from a study with homeless people in city X and city Z have generated similar findings

Inferential Generalization Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies Inferential Generalization Findings from a study can be applied to settings outside the study The findings can be “transferred” to similar settings (transferability) Example: Results from a pilot study on victims of domestic violence towards women to test the effectiveness of a service to help them cope and develop resilience can be transferred to similar settings like shelters for abused women.

Theoretical Generalization Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies Theoretical Generalization Theoretical concepts developed in the study can be used to develop further theory Example: Developing resilience in homeless teens could be effectively applied in policies to establish help centers for people.

Reliability and Validity Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies Reliability and Validity Reliable: How much the same results can be repeated with other studies Validity: how accurate or correct the result is

Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research Informed consent Participants must understand what the study will involve and must agree to participation Protect participants from harm Consider whether the research could harm Questions must be clear and direct Follow up to ensure participant well-being Anonymity and confidentiality Full anonymity is the rule Research material should be destroyed and transcript anonymous

Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research Potential exploitation of participants Researcher could use reflexivity and consult with other researchers when researching people who are not able to protect themselves Invasion of privacy Personal Conduct Close personal relationship is helpful for data collecting, but the relationship will have to end and may have psychological consequences Presentation of Data Once data has been collated, edited, interpreted and presented

Sampling in Quantitative and Qualitative Research Representative Sampling Using a sample that represents a target population Only kind of sampling that allows for the generalization of study results (unless triangulation is used)

Nonrepresentative Sampling Sampling in Quantitative and Qualitative Research Nonrepresentative Sampling Opportunity sampling- used by most experiments Purposive sampling- selecting a sample for a particular purpose; participants have particular characteristics (age, gender etc) based on a sample frame

Types of Purposive Samples Focus Groups A group of experts on a topic or people selected because of common experiences Snowball Sampling Interviewing an expert who then suggests the next expert participant and so on (Rosenthal, 1993) Convenience Sampling (Volunteer) Participants are chosen based on availability.

Effects of Participant Expectations and Researcher Bias Participant expectations can be described as participant factors that influence the outcome of the research Participants can behave in ways they feel is expected of them Participants may conform Participants ideas of the research can lead them to behave in ways that are not natural in order to please the researcher

Effects of Participant Expectations and Researcher Bias Researcher bias can be described as researcher factors that could potentially bias the research process. Researcher’s values and beliefs may bias the process Researcher needs to be aware of subjectivity in process and apply reflexivity Researcher may not give enough attention to social process and participant expectations Researcher could influence outcome by nodding or smiling

Importance of Credibility in Qualitative Research Increasing Credibility Creditability is based on an evaluation of whether or not the research findings represent a credible interpretation of the data drawn This means that the investigation must present a true picture of what is being studied The focus is on whether or not the study measures what it actually intends

Importance of Credibility in Qualitative Research Using reflexivity Researcher explains how individual bias could influence the research process and how this has been prevented Decisions trail Documenting every decision taken in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data Performing triangulation (appropriate for qualitative research) Use of alternative data collection methods, other use of researchers, and alternative methods of analysis

Increasing the Quality of Studies Importance of Credibility in Qualitative Research Increasing the Quality of Studies Be sure the categories generated in the interpretation are a good fit with the data Clearly describe the life circumstances of the sample Check interpretations against those of others Explore whether the results are transferable to other people and contexts

Triangulation The use of multiple (many) procedure or sources to collet data from different angles or perspectives Qualitative researchers rarely look for one truth. They look for one interpretation of data.

Types of Triangulation (for data gathered with qualitative methods) Method triangulation Use of different methods in the same study (observation and interview) Data triangulation Comparison of data from multiple sources (participants, observations, days, etc) Researcher triangulation Use of more than one researcher to collect and analyze data Theory triangulation Use of several competing theories to analyze the data

The Effect of Triangulation on the Credibility/Trustworthiness of Qualitative Research Gives the results of qualitative research more depth Bias is reduced Use of multiple sources increases the credibility of data gathered with qualitative methods

Reflexivity in Qualitative Research Personal reflexivity means that researchers reflect on the way their values, experiences and social identities influence the study Epistemological reflexivity means that researchers have considered their assumptions about the nature of the world and the nature of knowledge that relates to a study

Reflexivity in Qualitative Research Reflexivity refers to the careful attention the researcher pays to their own role in the research How did I come to the conclusions I came to? Why did I decided to investigate this topic? What has been muted, repressed or unheard?