Indian Subcontinent: Pakistan, Bangladesh, India e.g. Punjabi, Sindhi, Bengali

Reasons why Muslims came to South Asia To trade To rule To preach religion To seek patronage To seek refuge

Turko-Persian invasions

THE TURKO-PERSIAN WORLD

The emergence of “indigenous” Muslim communities 1) How do you define “conversion”? 2) Why did people “convert” to Islam in South Asia 3) How do theories of “conversion” reflect the world-views of those who propose them?

Dargah (tomb-shrine) of Muin ad-Din Chishti (d.1236)

Mughal Emperor Akbar (d. 1605), father of Salim (Emperor Jehangir) (d Shaykh Salim Chishti Fatehpur Sikri

Akbar’s ecumenical and mystical interests Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri Din-i ilahi - a new religion? Emperor as Insan-i kamil “Perfect Man” Edict of 1579

Akbar in the Ibadat Khana with Jesuits

“Razm nama” Persian translation of the Mahabharata

Dara Shikoh with Mian Mir, pir of Qadiri Sufi order

Indian Muslim prince and mystic, Dara Shikoh(d Indian Muslim prince and mystic, Dara Shikoh(d. 1659) translating Indic “Hindu” religious texts, the Upanishads, from Sanskrit to Persian

Majma al-Bahrain “The comingling of the two oceans”

Jahan Ara Begum (d. 1681) Jahan Ara’s tomb at Nizamuddin Shrine in Delhi

Emperor Aurangzeb (d. 1707)

Idioms of power in North India Mughal period Sharia based Mongol notion 3) Persian Akhlaq “ethical” traditions: Nasir ud-Din Tusi’s Akhlaq-i Nasiri (completed in 1235) 4) Wahdat al-wujud “unity of existence”

Akhlaq i Nasiri Nasir ud-din Tusi (d. 1274) philosopher and scientist Notion of Kingship -- person who had attained perfection (union with Supreme Being); help his subjects reach potential perfection Ability to harmonize conflicting interests of diverse social and religious groups Ensured the well-being of all people

Constructions of history Hero or villain (Akbar/Dara Shikoh vs. Aurangzeb) “Good Muslim” vs “Bad Muslim”

Naqshbandi response Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624) “mujaddid-i alf-i thani” Reformer of the second millenium Letters to emperor Jehangir Qayyum Wahdat ash-shuhud Shah Waliullah (d. 1762) -- loss of Muslim political power Reformer/activist Tariqah Muhammadiyya

Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai (d. 1752) What you consider couplets of songs, Are in-fact verses from the Holy Book, That guide you to the Beloved's abode." ..........Bhitai

Tomb of Shah Abdul Latif (d.1752), BhitShah, Pakistan

From Risalo, Sur Sassui "Beloved! you are aware of my illness, Beloved's enduring love is that chronic illness. My physician! for you to this ailment am I confined, Give me health's good tidings, remove distress of my mind. For you I weep, for you my cries are destined; Idle and wicked am I, free me from this evil design, May you come, who are my expert physician. Disappointed consulting other physicians, you alone are my medicine, You, who are so near, clasp me to your bosom."

Bullhe Shah (d.1758) Repeating the name of the Beloved I have become the Beloved myself. Whom shall I call the Beloved now?

You alone exist; I do not, O Beloved. You alone exist, I do not You alone exist; I do not, O Beloved! You alone exist, I do not! Like the shadow of a house in ruins, I revolve in my own mind. If I speak, you speak with me: If I am silent, you are in my mind. If I sleep, you sleep with me: If I walk, you are along my path. Oh Bulleh, the spouse has come to my house: My life is a sacrifice unto Him. You alone exist; I do not, O Beloved!

Verse from cakkinama (Bijapur) The cakki’s handle resembles the letter “alif” which means Allah And the axle is Muhammad, and is fixed there. In this way, the truth sees the relationship: Ya bism Allah, hu hu Allah

Remarks by General Parvez Musharraf “Have we forgotten the example of the Holy Prophet where Islam was spread by virtue of his personal conduct, true leadership….we have forgotten the teachings of revered personalities of Islam like Hazrat Data Ganj Baksh, Hazrat Lal Shahbaz, Baha ud-din Zakariyya…” Jan 12, 2006