Groups & Teams From: Slocum/Hellriegel: Principles of Organizational Behavior, Ch. 12 Buelens/Sinding/Waldstom: Organisational Behaviour, Ch. 7 & 8

Four Sociological Criteria of a group Common Identity 4 1 Two or more freely interacting individuals Collective norms 2 3 Collective goals

Informal groups in af formal structure

Organisational functions of a group Accomplish complex, interdependent tasks that are beyond the capacities of individuals Generate new or creative ideas and solutions Coordinate interdepartmental efforts Provide a problem-solving mechanism for complex problems requiring varied information and assessments Implement complex decisions Socialise and train newcomers

Individual functions of a group Satisfy the individual’s need for affiliation Develop, enhance and confirm the individual’s self- esteem and sense of identity Give individuals an opportunity to test and share their perceptions of social reality Reduce the individual’s anxieties and feelings of insecurity and powerlessness Provide a problem-solving mechanism for personal and interpersonal problems

Groups as (social) networks

Tuckman’s Five Stages of Group Development 7

Team: Small number of employees with complementary competencies who are comitted to common performance goals and working relationsships for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. (Lafasto & Larson, 2001)

Know why it exists and have shared goals Know why it exists and have shared goals Support agreed-on guidelines or procedures for making decisions Communicate freely among themselves Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.4

Deal with conflict openly and constructively Help each other Deal with conflict openly and constructively Diagnose its own processes and improve their own functioning Sense freedom to be oneself Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.5

Hackman‘s „Five factor model“ Attributes Conditions

Team players (Knowledge, Skills and Abilities) Interpersonal KSAs Conflict resolution: from win-lose to win-win Collaborative problem solving Communication: verbal and non-verbal Self-management KSAs Goal-setting and performance management Planning and co-ordination 12

being competent and able to accomplish work-related tasks (potency) being competent and able to accomplish work-related tasks (potency) performing important and valuable tasks (meaningfulness) having choice (autonomy) in how they carry out their tasks experiencing a sense of importance and significance (impact) in the work performed and goals achieved Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.6

Types of Teams Possible Teams in an Organization Functional Problem-solving Cross-functional Self-managed Virtual Global Types of Teams Possible Teams in an Organization Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.10

The evolution of self-managed work teams 15

Work and vacation scheduling Work and vacation scheduling Rotation of job tasks and assignments among members Ordering materials Deciding on team leadership Setting key team goals Budgeting Hiring replacements for departing team members Sometimes evaluating each other’s performance Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.11

Are organizational goals and expected team results clearly specified? Is the organization committed to aligning management systems with the teams? Are organizational goals and expected team results clearly specified? Will the teams have access to the resources they need? Will team members carry out interdependent tasks? Do employees have the necessary competencies? Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.12

Context Leadership Team effectiveness Goals Team size Member roles Context Leadership Team effectiveness Goals Team size Member roles Norms Member diversity Cohesiveness Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.19

Organizational design Physical Working Conditions Management Practices Type of Technology Organizational design Physical Working Conditions Management Practices Organizational Rewards and Punishments Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.20

Multiple leaders may exist Informal leaders may be important in determining whether a team accomplishes its goals Multiple leaders may exist Effective team leaders may influence virtually all the other factors Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.21

Team Goals: Outcomes desired by the team as a whole Team Goals: Outcomes desired by the team as a whole Compatible and conflicting goals often exist within a team Use of superordinate goals Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.23

TEAM SIZE Dimension 3-7 Members 8-12 Members 13-16 Members TEAM SIZE Dimension 3-7 Members 8-12 Members 13-16 Members 1. Demands on leader Low Moderate High 2. Direction by leader Low Moderate Moderate to high 3. Member tolerance of direction by leader Low to moderate Moderate High 4. Member inhibition Low Moderate High 5. Use or rules and procedures Low Moderate Moderate to high 6. Time taken to reach a decision Low Moderate High Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.25

Roles Roles are expected behaviours for a given position Role overload is when others’ expections exceed one’s ability Role conflict is when others have conflicting or inconsistent expectations Role ambiguity is when others’ expectations are unknown Task roles is task-oriented group behaviour Maintenance roles is relationship-building group behaviour

Functional Role Performance Task Roles Initiator Information seeker/giver Opinion seeker/giver Eleborator Description Suggests new goals or ideas Clarifies key issues Clarifies pertinent values Promotes greater understanding through examples or exploration of implications

Functional Role Performance Task Roles Coordinator Orienter Eevaluator Description Pulls together ideas and suggestions Keeps group headed toward its stated goal(s) Test group’s accomplishments with various criteria such as logic and practicality

Functional Role Performance Task Roles Energiser Procedural technician Recorder Description Prods group to move along or to accomplish more Performs routine duties (e.g.handing out materials - rearranging seats) erforms group memory function by documenting discussion & outcomes

Functional Role Performance Maintenance Roles Encourager Harmoniser Compromiser Description Fosters group solidarity by accepting and praising various points of view Mediates conflict through reconcilliation or humor Helps resolve conflict by meeting others “half way”

Functional Role Performance Maintenance Roles Gatekeeper Standard setter Commentator Follower Description Encourages all group memebers to participate Evaluates the quality of group processes Records and comments on group processes/dynamics Serves as a passive audience

Norms Versus Organizational rules Rules and patterns of behaviors that are accepted and expected by members of a team Norms Versus Organizational rules Teams adopt norms to help them attain their goals, which may or may not be consistent with organizational goals Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.29

Norms aid in team survival and provide benefits Norms aid in team survival and provide benefits Norms simplify or make predictable the behaviors expected of members Norms help avoid embarrassing interpersonal situations Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.30

...the strength of the members' desire to remain in a team and their commitment to it. Low cohesiveness is usually associated with low conformity High cohesiveness may be associated with either high or low conformity May impact effectiveness Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.32

Steps to enhance group cohesiveness Socio-Emotional Cohesiveness Keep the group relatively small Strive for a favorable public image to increase the status and prestige of belonging Encourage interaction and cooperation Emphasise members’ common characteristics and interests Point out environmental threats (e.g., competitor’s achievements to rally the group) 32

Steps to enhance group cohesiveness Instrumental Cohesiveness Regularly update and clarify the group’s goal(s) Give every group member a vital “piece of the action” Channel each group member’s special talents toward the common goal(s) Recognise and equitably reinforce every member’s contributions Frequently remind group members they need each other to get the job done 33

Research findings on co-operation In promoting achievement and productivity, co- operation Is superior to competition Is superior to individualistic efforts Without intergroup competition is superior to co- operation with intergroup competition 34

Trust Trust: “Reciprocal faith in others’ intentions and behavior.” Propensity to trust: “A personality trait involving one’s general willingness to trust others.” How to Build Trust Communication (keep everyone informed; give feedback; tell the truth). Support (be available and approachable). Respect (delegate; be an active listener). Fairness (give credit where due; objectively evaluate performance). Predictability (be consistent; keep your promises). Competence (demonstrate good business sense and professionalism). 35

Threats to Group Effectiveness The Asch Effect Groupthink Social loafing

The Asch experiment

Groupthink and results

Insulation of the team from outsiders High cohesiveness Insulation of the team from outsiders Lack of methodical procedures for search and appraisal Directive leadership High stress with a low degree of hope for finding a better solution than the one favored by the leader or other influential persons Complex/changing environment Illusion of invulnerability Collective rationalization Belief in inherent morality of the team Stereotypes of other groups Direct pressure on dissenters Self-censorship Illusion of unanimity Self-appointed “mind guards” Incomplete survey of alternatives Incomplete survey of goals Failure to examine risks of preferred choice Poor information search Selective bias in processing information at hand Failure to reappraise alternatives Failure to work out contingency plans Conformity- Seeking Tendency of Group Chapter 12: PowerPoint12.35

The stepladder requirements: First, each group member must be given the group’s task and sufficient time to think about the problem before entering the core group. Second, the entering member must present his or her preliminary solutions before hearing the core group’s preliminary solutions.

The stepladder requirements: Third, with the entry of each additional member to the core group, sufficient time to discuss the problem is necessary. Fourth, a final decision must be purposely delayed until the group has been formed in its entirety.