Native Americans: The First Americans Chapter 6 Native Americans: The First Americans

Early European Contacts Misunderstood and ill treated by their conquerors for several centuries Diverse Ethnicity Culture; Kinship system; Political – economic In 1500, 700 distinct languages spoken in the area north of Mexico © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Early European Contacts Columbus’ diary Estimated 10 million in 1500 About 600,000 in 1800 1n 1900, less than 250,000 This loss of human life can only be judged as catastrophic © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Treaties and Warfare US formulated a policy that followed precedents est. during colonial period Not to antagonize Native Americans unnecessarily Exploits of the Forty-Niners were glorified Authorities offered bounties to settlers for the heads of American Indians © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Treaties and Warfare The Case of Sioux Treatment was especially cruel; remains fresh in the minds of tribal members even today Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) Whites entered Sioux territory spurred by Col. George Custer’s exaggerated reports of gold Battle of Little Big Horn (1876) Last great Sioux victory © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Treaties and Warfare Millenarian Movement (Ghost Dance) Originated among the Paiutes of Nevada Functionalist perspective Views millenarian movement as a means of coping with the domination of White intruders © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Treaties and Warfare Battle of Wounded Knee (1890) Cavalry arrived & random shot led to death of 300 Sioux and 25 government soldiers Despite effects of disease and warfare, 250,000 Indians still lived in 1890 According to the government, Indian problem still remained © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Ruling The Native Americans Internal Colonialism The treatment of subordinate groups like colonial subjects by those in power The Allotment Act (1887) The Reorganization Act (1934) Tribes could adopt a written constitution and elect a tribal council with a head © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reservation Life and Federal Policies Over 1/3rd of Native American live on 557 reservations and trust lands in 33 states A bit more than 2% of the land throughout the US Many 20th century policies were designed to “get out of the Indian business” © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Legal Claims Native Americans could not bring a claim against government; need Act of Congress Prevented most charges of treaty violations Only 142 claims were heard during this period Indian Claims Commission (1946) Established by Congress to hear claims against government © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Legal Claims Commission extended until 1978 Cases are now heard by the U.S. Court of Claims The federal government agreed to a settlement of $3.4 billion Including individual payments of at least $1,500 to 300,000 individual American Indians © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Legal Claims Congress agreed to pay $106 million for land seized in aftermath of Little Big Horn The original settlement, the subsequent unaccepted payments, & accrued interest: Brought the 2011 total of funds being held for the Sioux to more than $1 billion © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Termination Act of 1953 Policy proposed as attempt to give Native Americans greater autonomy And at the same time reduce federal expenditures Services tribes received should not be viewed as special And deserving to be discontinued © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Termination Act of 1953 Unfortunately, it reduced costs and ignored individual needs Services were to be withdrawn gradually but were stopped immediately Effect on Native Americans disastrous Unable to establish some of the basic services © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Termination Act of 1953 In 1975, the government resumed the services Signaled the end of another misguided policy Intended to be good for Native Americans © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Employment Assistance Program (1952) BIA began programs to relocate young Native Americans (1962) Employment Assistance Program (EAP) Provided educational and business assistance Impact on the economic development of the reservation and the brain drain © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Collective Action Pan-Indianism Intertribal social movements; several tribes joined by political goals Vividly seen in cultural efforts and political protests National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) Founded in 1944 in Denver, Colorado © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Collective Action American Indian Movement (AIM) Founded in 1968 by Clyde Bellecourt and Dennis Banks in Minneapolis, MN More radical & created a patrol to monitor police actions & document police brutality 1969 Alcatraz takeover by Francisco Indian Center © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Collective Action Fish-ins Red Power movement Alaska Native Settlement Act (1971) Claim of land rights by Inuit Eskimos and other Aleuts Alaskan Federation of Natives (AFN) Native Claims Settlement Act (1971) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Collective Action Battle of Wounded Knee II Powwows (Pau Wau) Most dramatic confrontation between Native Americans and government recently Powwows (Pau Wau) Medicine man/spiritual leader of Algonquian tribes But Europeans used word to refer to entire events © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sovereignty While collaborative action gathering cannot be minimized There continues to be a strong effort to maintain tribal sovereignty or tribal self-rule Sovereignty remains linked to both the actions of the federal government And the actions of individual American Indians © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native Americans Today The continuing use of American Indian names as mascots for athletic teams Native American population is split between those on and off reservations And those living in small towns & central cities Economic Development High rate of unemployment and poverty © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native Americans Today Tourism and the double edged sword Source of income but also a source of degradation Indian Arts and Crafts Act Cottage industries Income from mineral rights © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Casino Gambling Recent source of significant income and some employment Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (1988) Gaming money Supports tribal members, is used to buy back tribal lands, and help underwrite cost of the: Smithsonian Museum of the American Indian © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Casino Gambling Three important factors: Tribes do pay taxes Nationwide, economic and social impact of gambling revenue is limited Levels of unemployment are higher and family income lower than for the nation as a whole © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Casino Gambling Another major source of employment for Native Americans is the government BIA, federal agencies, military, and state and local governments Dominant feature of reservation life is unemployment About 50% unemployed © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Education Dropout rate about 15% compared to 6.4% of Whites Many found their educational experience so hostile that they had no choice but to leave Kickouts/Pushouts More appropriate terms experience of Native Americans with school system © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Education Problems in Native American Education include: Under-enrollment at all levels, from primary grades through college Need to adjust to a school with values dramatically different from those of the home © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Education The need to make the curriculum more relevant The under-financing of tribal community colleges Language barrier faced by the many children who have little or no knowledge of English © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Healthcare For Native Americans, “healthcare” is a misnomer: Another broken promise in the long line of unmet pledges the government has made Contributing to the problems of healthcare and mortality on reservations are often: High rates of crime © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Religious and Spiritual Expression American Indian Religious Freedom Act passed by Congress in 1978 Concern with stockpiling Native American relics, including burial remains Native American Church - ritualistic use of peyote and marijuana © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Environment Concerns: Environmental literature stereotypes Many environmental issues rooted in continuing land disputes arising from treaties Environmental issues reinforce tendency to treat first inhabitants of Americas as inferior © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Environment CERT was formed in 1976 - Council of Energy Resource Tribes Consisted of 25 of the West’s largest tribes Other tribes were added later Purpose to protect and develop tribal natural resources such as natural gas Environmental justice © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.