Unit 7A: Cognition: Memory

What is Memory? Human memory is an information processing system that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Metaphors for Memory Cognitive psychologists see human memory more as an interpretive system, such as an artist, rather than a system that takes an accurate recording, such as a video recorder Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Human Memory is Good at: Information on which attention is focused Information in which we are interested Information that arouses us emotionally Information that fits with our previous experiences Information that we rehearse

Information Processing Model Encoding - getting information into the memory system Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage

Memory’s Three Basic Tasks Encoding Storage Retrieval Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Memory’s Three Basic Functions Encoding Storage Retrieval Involves modification of information to fit the preferred format of the memory system Elaboration – Deliberate encoding in which you connect a new concept with existing information Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Memory’s Three Basic Functions Encoding Storage Retrieval Involves retention of encoded material over time Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Memory’s Three Basic Functions Encoding Storage Retrieval Involves the location and recovery of information from memory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Encoding The processing of information into the memory system. Getting a girls name at a party Typing info into a computer

Storage The retention of encoded material over time. Trying to remember her name when you leave the party. Pressing Ctrl S and saving the info.

Retrieval The process of getting the information out of memory storage. Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure). Finding your document and opening it up.

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal, also called short-term memory or STM Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The First Stage: Sensory Memory On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second Try to remember as many letters as you can Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

D J B X H G C L Y Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The First Stage: Sensory Memory How many can you recall? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

D J B X H G C L Y Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Sensory Memory Iconic store – visual information, ½ second The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system Iconic store – visual information, ½ second Echoic store – sound information, 2-3 seconds Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

Sensory Memory The actual capacity of sensory memory can be twelve or more items All but three or four items disappear before they can enter consciousness There is a separate sensory register for each sense Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form of nerve impulses

Storage: Retaining Information Working/Short-Term Memory Magic number Seven Plus or minus 2 The list of magic sevens Seven wonders of world Seven seas Seven deadly sins Seven primary colors Seven musical scale notes Seven days of the week

Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory

Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Elaborative rehearsal – Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM Making connections to previous memories will improve retrieval of new memory

Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode Ebbinghaus curve

Semantic Encoding The encoding of meaning Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall

Semantic Encoding

Acoustic Encoding Encoding information based on the sounds of the information

Acoustic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Visual Encoding Encoding information based on the images of the information

Visual Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Encoding Errors Answer the following questions: Which letters do not appear on the old standard telephone dial? What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag? The bottom stripe? How many sides do most wooden pencils have? In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch? The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is on the back of a $10 bill? A $5 bill? A $1 bill? What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S. coins?

Answers Which letters do not appear on the old standard telephone dial? A: Q and Z What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag? The bottom stripe? A: Red for both How many sides do most wooden pencils have? A: Six In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch? A: Right The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is on the back of a $10 bill? (Treasury Building) A $5 bill? (Lincoln Memorial) A $1 bill? (The word “One”) What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S. coins? A: United States of America

The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Procedural memory (IMPLICIT)– Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done Declarative memory (EXPLICIT) – Division of LTM that stores explicit information (also known as fact memory)

TYPES OF MEMORIES

The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Episodic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events, or “episodes” Semantic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Storage: Retaining Information Storing Memories in the Brain Stress Hormones and Memory Emotions and memories Flashbulb memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Storage: Retaining Information Long-Term Memory Unlimited nature of long-term memory

MEMORIZE THE FOLLOWING SEQUENCE OF NUMBERS 5761284322

What were the numbers???

5761284322

Serial Position Effect The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

Primacy/Recency Effect or Serial Position Effect (From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode Spacing effect Massed practice Distributed practice Testing effect

Take out a piece of paper Name the Seven Dwarves

Retrieval The process of getting information out of memory storage Two forms of retrieval Recall Recognition

Recall A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier Example: Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short answer test questions test recall

Recognition A measure of memory in which a person must identify items learned earlier Example: Multiple choice and matching test questions test recognition

Now pick out the seven dwarves. Turn your paper over. Now pick out the seven dwarves. Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

Seven Dwarves Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

Context Effect The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Context Effects

Context

State Dependent Memory The enhanced ability to retrieve information when the person is in the same physical and emotional state they were in when they encoded the information