Groups & Organizations Jennifer L. Fackler, M.A.

Social Groups Social Group – 2+ people who identify and interact with one another Shared experiences, loyalties, and interests. Think of themselves as a special “we.” Social groups are not the same thing as categories (people with a common status) or crowds (loosely formed collections of people in one place). Categorizations of Groups: Primary vs. Secondary In vs. Out Reference

Social Groups Primary Group – a small social group those members share personal and lasting relationships (Ex: Family) Spend lots of time together. Engage in a wide range of activities. Feel that they know each other pretty well. Among the first groups we experience. Important in the socialization process. Group is an end in and of itself, not a means to an end. Members are viewed as unique and irreplaceable. Personal Orientation – WHO you are Secondary Group – a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity (Ex: Co-Workers) Weak emotional ties. Little personal knowledge of one another. Short-term, beginning and ending without much significance. Larger than primary groups. Time may transform the group from secondary to primary. Members do NOT think of themselves as “we.” Interaction is formal and polite. Goal Orientation – WHAT you are

Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Social Groups Reference Groups – a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions Can be primary or secondary. We also use groups that we do NOT belong to for reference (e.g., anticipatory socialization). Stouffer’s Research (1949): we do not make judgments about ourselves in isolation, nor do we compare ourselves with just anyone; we form a subjective sense of our well-being by looking at ourselves in relation to specific reference groups In-Groups – a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty (Ex: Rockets Fans) Out-Groups – a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition (Ex: Spurs Fans) Hold overly positive views of in and overly negative views of out. Tensions between groups sharpen the groups’ boundaries and provide a clearer social identity. Power plays a part in what is defined as an in vs. out group. Foster loyalty & generate conflict.

Social Groups Group Size – plays an important role in how members interact Dyad – a social group with two members Intense social interaction. Do not share attention with anyone else. Unstable because if either member withdraws – the group will collapse. Example: Two Friends Talking, Couple on a Date Triad – a social group with three members More stable than a dyad because one member can mediate if the relationship between the other two is strained. Possible for 2 to gang up on the 1. 4+ People Groups become more stable. Can withstand the loss of members. Less intense personal interaction,. Based less on personal attachment and more on formal rules and regulations.

Social Groups Networks – a web of weak social ties Includes people we know of – or who know of us – but with whom we interact rarely, if at all. Network ties often give us the sense that we live in a “small world.” 6 Degrees of Separation May be weak, but can be a powerful resource. Whom you know is often as important as what you know. Can be based on people’s colleges, clubs, neighborhoods, political parties, and personal interests. Some people have denser networks than others, they are connected to more people. Networks are shaped by our characteristics like race, gender, and class. IT has generated a global network of unprecedented size in the form of the Internet, and now – more specifically – social networks.

Social Groups Group Leadership Styles Instrumental Leadership – focuses on the completion of tasks Make plans. Give orders. Get things done. Formal secondary relationships. Receive respect. Associated with maleness. Expressive Leadership – focuses on the group’s well-being Raise group morale. Minimize tension and conflict. Personal primary ties. Receive affection. Associated with femaleness.

Social Groups Group Leader Decision-Making Styles Authoritarian – focuses on instrumental concerns, takes personal charge of decision making, and demands that group members obey orders, successful in a crisis Democratic – makes a point of including everyone in the decision-making process; draw on ideas of all members to develop creative solutions Laissez-Faire – allows the group to function more or less on its own; least effective at promoting group goals

Social Groups Group Conformity Groups influence the behavior of their members by promoting conformity. “Fitting in” provides a secure feeling of belonging, but group pressure can be unpleasant or even dangerous. Asch’s Research (1952): many of us are willing to compromise our own judgment to avoid the discomfort of being different, even from people we do not know Clip: YouTube Milgram’s Research (1965): people are likely to follow the lead of not only legitimate authority figures but also groups or ordinary individuals, even when it means harming another person Clips: BBC Videos & Original Audio Clips Janis’ Groupthink – the tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue Clip: Challenger Video

Cards Used in Asch’s Experiment in Group Conformity Subjects were asked to match the line on Card 1 to one of the lines on Card 2. Most subjects agreed with the wrong answers given by others in their group.

Formal Organizations Formal Organizations – large secondary groups organized to achieve their goals efficiently Impersonal and formally planned atmosphere. Origins of Formal Organizations Rationalization of Society (Weber) – the historical change from tradition to rationality as the main type of human thought Tradition – values and beliefs passed from generation to generation Rationality – a way of thinking that emphasizes deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient way to accomplish a particular task

Formal Organizations 3 Types of FOs – Etzioni (1975) Utilitarian – pays people for their efforts; usually a matter of individual choice, but most people must join one to make a living Example: Exxon Mobil Normative – pursue some goal they think is morally worthwhile Example: Red Cross Coercive – involuntary memberships Example: Prison Special Features: Locked Doors, Barred Windows, Security Personnel Goal: Isolate people to radically change their attitudes and behavior. A single organization can fall into ALL of these categories. Example: Mental Hospital

Formal Organizations Organizational Environment – factors outside an organization that affect its operation Technology Economic and Political Trends Current Events The Available Workforce Other Organizations

Formal Organizations Bureaucracy – an organizational model rationally designed to perform tasks efficiently 6 Characteristics of an Ideal Bureaucracy (Weber 1921): Specialization – individuals are assigned highly specialized jobs Hierarchy of Offices – personnel are organized vertically and take the shape of a pyramid, with few at the top and many at the bottom Rules and Regulations – rationally enacted rules and regulations guide a bureaucracy’s operation; leads to predictable operation Technical Competence – personnel must be technically competent to carry out their tasks; hiring is done according to set standards and performance is monitored Impersonality – rules are more important than personal whim; everyone is treated the same way Formal, Written Communications – no casual face-to-face talk, reliance on formal, written memos and reports in vast files Bureaucracy is a Top-Down System & an Oligarchy Rules and regulations made at the top guide every facet of people’s lives down the chain of command. Oligarchy – the rule of many by the few Is the US an oligarchy? Why or why not?

Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Formal Organizations The Informal Side of Bureaucracy - Real bureaucracies differ from Weber’s ideal bureaucracy. Problems Within Real Bureaucracies: Humans can resist bureaucratic regulation. Cutting corners at work or being flexible enough to adapt. Organizational leaders vary and that impacts organizational performance. Leadership & D-M Style Personal Characteristics Informal communication networks emerge. “Grapevines” E-mail has flattened organizations, making the bottom ranks closer to the upper ranks.

Formal Organizations Problems Within Real & Ideal Bureaucracies: Bureaucratic Alienation (Weber 1921) Can dehumanize the people it is supposed to serve. Impersonality fosters efficiency but also a lack of personalization. Humans become a small cog in a ceaselessly moving mechanism. Fear is that we might end up serving FOs instead of FOs serving us. Bureaucratic Inertia (Weber 1921) – the tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate themselves FOs take on a life of their own beyond their formal objective. Bureaucratic Inefficiency & Ritualism (Merton 1968) Bureaucratic Ritualism – a focus on rules and regulations to the point of undermining an organization’s goals Inefficiency – the failure of an organization to carry out the work that it exists to perform

Formal Organizations Scientific Management (Taylor 1911) – application of scientific principles to the operation of a large organization Three Steps: 1. Carefully observe the task(s) performed by each worker. 2. Analyze the data and look for ways to improve efficiency. 3. Provide guidance and incentives for efficiency. Goals: ↑ Profit & Wages; ↓ Prices Centralized power with owners and executives. Clip: YouTube on Ford & SM

Evolution of FOs McDonaldization of Society – the organizational principles that underlie McDonald’s are coming to dominate our entire society We now model many aspects of life on the approach taken by McDonald’s. Four Principles (Ritzer 1993): Efficiency – efficiency is now central to our way of life; we tend to think that anything done quickly is, for that reason alone, good Predictability – efficient organizations want to make everything they do as predictable as possible and we like predictability in our lives Uniformity – both our environment and our life experiences are more standardized than ever before; results in a highly rational system that specifies every action and leaves nothing to chance Control – the most unreliable element of the system is human beings, so we often automate things to make-up for this McDonaldization limits creativity, choice , and freedom. Example: ATMs

Future of Organizations “Intelligent Organizations” Emerged in the post-industrial world. Flatter, More Flexible Models Encourage Communication & Creativity More productive than ever. Highly-Skilled Idea Creating Workers: Less Alienation & More Freedom Moderately-Skilled Routine Service Workers: Less Benefit Ever-present threat of downsizing, especially for the average worker. Formal organizations also pose a mounting threat to our privacy.

Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Discussion Questions What are some in-groups and out-groups at our school or in your high school? What type of leadership and decision-making style do you prefer to work under? What type of leader and decision-maker are you? What does the organizational pyramid of our school look like? What are some examples of groupthink in American history? Have you ever found yourself seeking to conform in a group situation that resulted in a narrow view of some issue?

Conclusion Our society contains a variety of social groups in varying forms. Primary & Secondary In & Out Reference Understanding the dynamics of social groups is one area of sociological inquiry. For Example: Leadership & D-M Styles Sociologists also study formal organizations, which are simply large, organized social groups. Bureaucracies are one type of organizational model. Any questions?