General Chemistry 7 Overview Patrick Dionne

Chapter 11: Liquids, Solids, and Materials The liquid state is the state where either gas condenses or solids melt to, and this state has several properties like viscosity, surface tension. Various terms like capillary action and meniscus occur in this state. The volatility of a liquid to evaporate into gas creates vapor pressure. The gaseous state is a higher energy state after the liquid state, where the liquid evaporates into the gas. The reverse of this is condensation. For the solid states, going from solid to liquid is called melting. While a liquid to solid is called several terms such as solidification, freezing, and crystallization. There is also times where a solid can go straight to a gas, which is called sublimation. The reverse is called deposition. Solids have different configurations as well, such as simple cubic, face-centered cubic, and body-centered cubic.

Examples 2 1 Figure 1: Different phases of a compound 3 Figure 2: Dry Ice Example of Sublimation Figure 3: Cubic Solid Configurations

Chapter 13: Kinetics, Reaction Rates There are different factors that can change a reaction rate such as the reactants molecular structure/bonding, concentrations, temperature, and catalysts being included. In general the rate laws can either be First Order, Second Order, or Zeroth-Order. Half-Life of a reaction is also part of the reaction rates, which also changes between first order and higher. Activation Energy, and reactions that are unimolecular and bimolecular also affects the rate laws. Arrhenius equation can be used to take temperature into account.

Chapter 14: Chemical Equilibrium Dynamic Equilibrium has both forward and reverse reactions, for example weak acids in water. Acetic acid and water form acetate ions and hydronium ions, and visa versa. Equilibrium constant is Kc, which is kforward/kreverse. Equillibrium constants can also be calculated from or to calculate concentrations. aA + bB <-> cC + dD Solids do not appear in the equation. Ideal Gas Law can also be used when needed, when pressure is involved. PV = nRT Le Chatelier’s Principle: Equillibrium reactions can be influenced by increasing or decreasing the concentrations of the reactants or products.

Chapter 16: Acids and Bases Bronsted-Lowry Concept- BL acids are H-ion donors, BL bases are H-ion acceptors. Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs, where each acid or base has an equivalent of a base or acid. Strengths of Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs, where the stronger the base is, the weaker the conjugate acid is. Or visa versa. pH scale is determined by the amount of H+ in solution, which is calculated with: pH = -log[H3O+] pH goes from 0-14, from most acidic to most basic. Acid Ionization Constant can be calculated like the rate laws: For Base Ionization constants the conjugate concentrations are swapped and OH- is used instead. Lewis Acids and Bases- LA is a molecule that can accept a pair of electrons for a bond, a LB is a molecule that donates a pair of electrons for the bond.

Chapter 18: Thermodynamics and Directionality Reactions can be favored in the reactants or products, which can shift the equillibrium towards the more favored side. Entropy is used to measure dispersal of energy: Gibbs Free Energy- Is a way calculating free energy of a system under constant temperature and pressure. Energy is conserved with Gibbs Free Energy. Reactions can also be thermodynamically or kinetically stable. Thermodynamically stable reactions are ones that favor reactants, and kinetically stable is product favored.

Chapter 19: Electrochemistry and Applications Redox Reactions- A general term for a large amount of reactions which include any atoms, ions, and molecules. Oxidation-Reduction is part of it, where the oxidizing agent gets reduced and reducing agent is oxidized. The reactants either loses electrons when oxidized, or gain electrons when reduced. Electrochemical Cells- Electrons get transferred between two solutions using wires and salt bridges. Anode is oxidized, and cathode is reduced. Cell voltage can be calculated from: Reaction is product favored when Ecell is positive, reactant favored when negative. Can be combined with Gibbs Free Energy, with standard conditions: Nernst equation- Used to calculate the concentration from Ecell.

Citation and Figures Book: Chemistry, 4th Edition, Moore Figure 1: http://www.kentchemistry.com/images/links/matter/Phase.gif Figure 2: http://i1-news.softpedia-static.com/images/news2/What-is-Dry-Ice-2.jpg Figure 3: http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/principles-of-general-chemistry-v1.0/section_16/4390e1822a2f60946e201acbdac91c27.jpg