The 1940s Triumph and Tragedy

Triumph and Tragedy * On 3 September, 1939, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declares that as Britain is at war against Germany, so too is India. * In protest to this British “high-handedness”, the Congress ministries in the Indian provinces resign * Taking advantage of an absence of Congress influence, the Muslim League enact the Pakistan Resolution (1940) – an ill-defined demand for a separate Muslim state

Triumph and Tragedy * The unilateral declaration of war was a political blunder in terms of its governance over India * The war also comes closer to sub-continent after 1941, as Japan enters the war. * The Indian Army increases tenfold in size and fights in the Middle East and South-East Asia * As Britain struggles to pay for its war, it becomes India’s debtor. * India now has ₤1, 000 million of sterling silver in reserve in Britain

Negotiation and the August ‘Rising’ * As a contrast to 1914, the INC did not give unquestioning support for the war in 1939 * The INC did also fragment at this time. Gandhi abstained from dialogue with the British due to his non-violence beliefs * Some INC members even entered into dialogue with the fascist powers over Indian independence * By 1942, the British war in Asia is not going well. They offer India independence, but only after the war is over and no province is coerced to join the Indian state

Indian Troops World War Two

Negotiation and August ‘Rising’ * During World War Two, British promises of an “Indian Cabinet” began to seem distant * By 1942, Winston Churchill's derision for Indian independence was more pronounced – he was an ardent imperialist. He insisted he was not elected to “preside over the liquidation of the British Empire.”

1942 – Quit India Movement * As dissatisfaction grew over British reticence to transfer power (and because most of the INC leaders were in jail), uncoordinated violence broke out * In jail, Gandhi was unable to stop the violence (the worst uprising since 1857) * Though he did suggest that violence was preferable to cowardice

Women’s procession during the Quit India Movement

1942 – Quit India Movement * There were massive attacks on Government property and communications * In Bihar Province, 170 police stations and government buildings were incinerated * The British were brutal in their response and the rebellion was supressed in six weeks * Congress leaders were kept in prison for three more years

Jinnah and the Pakistan Idea * As the INC alienated themselves from the British, the Muslim League were able to gain more leverage from them * In 1940, the goal of Pakistan becomes the primary focus of the Muslim League * “Pakistan” – an amalgam of “Punjab, Afghan Regions, Sind and Baluchistan” – it also means “the land of the pure”

Simla Conference to the Cabinet Mission * June 1945, Viceroy Wavell, Gandhi, Nehru and Jinnah meet in Simla to discuss an interim government * The talks break down as Jinnah asserts that only he can be the spokesman for India’s Muslims and that only the League can select Muslim leaders * The British let Jinnah “wreck” the Simla Conference * As the Allies defeat Germany in May and Japan in August, Britain is exhausted and has neither the will, nor the power, to control India. *

Simla Conference to the Cabinet Mission * The beginning of the “endgame” for the British Raj is the elections of 1945/6 *India is polarised into Congress and Muslim League supporters * The INC wins 90% of the vote *The League wins all 30 of its allocated “Muslim” seats

March 1946 Cabinet Mission * Realising the polarised state of Indian politics, a British Cabinet delegation arrives to propose a 3-tiered “Federal” government (like Australia) * They hoped that “Muslim” provinces in India would placate Jinnah and the League’s hope for “Pakistan” * Jinnah wanted “Pakistan” to have political parity with Hindu India * Nehru and the INC also reject the model, fearing a loss of power to the central “Congress” government

Massacre and Partition * Jinnah’s call for “direct action” sparks violence in a number of provinces * Religious bands roam the streets of Calcutta, Bihar and Bengal kill and maim people of the other religion * 4,000 people are killed in Calcutta; 7,000 are killed in Bihar * Gandhi’s calls for calm and non-violence fall on deaf ears * Inter-religious violence spreads to the Punjab, where Sikhs fear Muslim control in “Pakistan”

Lord Mountbatten * In February, 1947, Lord Mountbatten is announced as Britain’s last viceroy * His task is a difficult one – to transfer power to the Indians by August 1947 * London, exhausted and poor, wants to disassociate itself from the chaos and violence of India as quickly as possible

Lord Mountbatten

Lord Mountbatten * By the time Mountbatten arrives, a united India is out of the question * On 14 August, 1947, Pakistan declares its independence * On 15 August India declares its independence

Pakistan and India 1947

Indian Independence Day

Mass Migration and Violence * Fear and Violence reminded both groups that they would only be safe in one state * People were forced to chose whether they were loyal to India or Pakistan * In three months in 1947, 5 million move from the West Punjab into India * 5.5 million Muslims move the other way into Pakistan *Those of the opposite religion that remained were treated with hostility and fear for months

Mass Migration - 1947

The Indian Princes * Now without British support, the Indian Princely States are now very isolated * Both India and Pakistan want to avoid further “splitting” of their states * Most princes peacefully gave up their power and territory in 1947 * The Nizam of Hyderabad holds out until September, 1948, when Indian troops march on his fort. * His family’s 200 year rule is peacefully extinguished

The Maharaja of Kashmir * Kashmir is a mountainous, isolated province in the north-west * The Hindu Maharaja, ruling a majority Muslim population, decides to side with India in October, 1947. * Pakistan, citing corruption of the Hindu leaders and the subversion of the Muslim population, claim Kashmir as part of Pakistan and it is still one of the world’s flashpoint areas.

Kashmir

Kashmir * India would fight 3 wars with Pakistan over Kashmir in twenty-five years

India and Pakistan * Jinnah becomes Pakistan’s first Governor General * Nehru was vehement that India is not “Hindustan” and claimed, in India, a secular, inclusive state for Hindu, Muslim and Sikh * Millions of Muslims, for many reasons, decide to remain in India * Pakistan asks the (newly formed) UN for a ceasefire border in Kashmir * In 1947, Nehru promised that Kashmiris would vote for which state they wanted to join (this has never happened).

The 1940s * An emotionally charged time * Kashmir, violence, as well as inter-religious rape and gang-rape incensed both groups * Estimates suggest that 50, 000 women were abducted or abused * Many were sold or forcibly married/converted * The governments of India and Pakistan worked hard after independence to locate and “rescue” these abducted women – many were then abandoned and “shamed” by their families and husbands

Gandhi’s Assassination * Gandhi is assassinated by a Hindu extremist as he was leading prayer in New Delhi in January, 1948 * Nehru said to the nation, “The light has gone out of our lives.” * Realistically, Gandhi hadn’t been a political force since 1946 * He never agreed to partition and helplessly condemned the violence surrounding independence * His last political act was to compel the Indian Government to give ₤40 million sterling to Pakistan – its share of pre-Partition Indian wealth

Gandhi’s Funeral Procession 1948