Download: http://facpub.stjohns.edu/~delfinor/review1.ppt REVIEW FOR MIDTERM Download: http://facpub.stjohns.edu/~delfinor/review1.ppt (1) Presocratics: Orphics (soul=air), Anaximenes (soul=air), Heraclitus (soul=fire), Pythagoras (soul=number) and materialism (all were materialists), (2) Plato and Dualism: A human is actually 2 substances: physical body and spiritual soul, (3) Plato on powers of soul: Intellect (Reason), Appetite (Bodily Desire), and Spirited part (Emotional) and their relations to Democratic (all 3 equal), Tyrannical (Appetite), Timocratic (Spirited) and Philosophical (Intellect) souls, (4) Plato and Human Destiny: After physical death you are judged and either reincarnate or live in "heaven" forever; Happiness = Death (escape from the body)

(5) Aristotle’s 10 categories (5) Aristotle’s 10 categories. (6) Primary Substance = “that which is neither predicable of a subject nor present in a subject; for instance, the individual man or horse” and “are the entities which underlie everything else, and … everything else is either predicated of them or present in them” (6) Secondary substance = genus (e.g. mammal) and species (e.g. human). Definition = genus + species. (6) Accidents are properties that have nothing to do with the definition of a thing. (7) Substantial Change: Ex: Bob is burned alive and becomes ashes. This is a substantial for 2 reasons: (1) The ashes do not belong to the same genus & species that Bob did. (2) Bob no longer exists. Ex 2: sperm and egg join and a human baby comes into being. (8) Accidental Change: Ex: Bob eats too much food and becomes fat. This is an accidental change for 3 reasons: (1) The change is in the accident of quantity. (2) Bob, the primary substance, still exists. (3) Bob, still belongs to the same genus (animal) & species (human).

(9) Generation and (10) Corruption: Aristotle discusses substantial change from 2 perspectives: Corruption: in a substantial change a primary substance passes out of existence. Bob is no more. Generation: something comes into existence. In this case, the ashes. Aristotle says only Primary Substances are generated or corrupted (11) Hylomorphism: A primary substance is composed of prime matter & substantial form. Neither prime matter nor substantial form ever exists alone—they either exist together or not at all. By themselves they are incomplete, but together they form one primary substance, for example: Bob. Do not confuse Bob’s matter (his flesh, arms, legs, etc.) with prime matter. Bob’s body is second matter—matter joined to a form. Second matter has features (Bob’s body has a shape.) Primary matter is featureless (no color, no shape, etc.) (12) Primary substance and secondary substance/species/genus: see (6) above.

(13) Prime matter = featureless, potentiality (prime matter can become whatever the form united to it makes it become), ungenerated, and never exists alone. (14) Substantial form = has features, actuality, makes a primary substance the kind of thing (genus and species) it is, ungenerated, and never exists alone. (15) Actuality is indefinable (we cannot break it down into simpler concepts as we can break down ‘bachelor’ into unmarried and male. Still we know what it means through experience. First actuality refers to substantial form. In living things first actuality is the soul and its powers. Second actuality are individual acts (exercise) of the power. For example an act of thinking… (16) Potentiality is indefinable but it best described as the ability to become something else. A baby has the potential to become an adult.

(17) Four Causes of Aristotle: Aristotle says that change can be explained through FOUR causes: material, formal, efficient, and final. EXAMPLE: 4 Causes of a new human baby coming into being. Material A constituent of the thing… egg + sperm Formal Determines what it is… rational soul Efficient The initiator of the change… Parents Final Cause That for the sake of which all was done… baby (18) Agent = another name for the efficient cause. (19) Limitations of the proof of the soul: We still don’t know the answers to these questions: (1) How many souls does an individual have?, (2) What is the soul made of—spiritual?, (3) Where does a soul come from?, and (4) Can a soul exist after death of the individual?

(20) Different Kinds of Souls and Powers (Aristotle): Second Actuality = individual actions of thinking, seeing, etc. (21) Appeties (passive powers): Appetite = inclination toward or away from something. An appetite is a passive power that is actualized by a known good (something that at least appears to be good to us) Sense appetites: require material organs & are not free (ex: desire for food) Rational appetite (will): has no material organ, it is a non-physical power that seeks after known non-physical goods (ex: justice, duty, etc.) Type of Soul Powers (First Actuality) Vegetative Life, nutrition, growth Animal Life, nutrition, growth, sensation Rational Life, nutrition, growth, sensation, intelligence

(22) Knowledge and immateriality: The mind, but not the soul, is non-physical for Aristotle. (23) Mind vs. soul for Aristotle: soul = cause of life, mind = power of the soul that is responsible for intelligence. (24) Meaning of life for Aristotle: to actualize all of your potential, (25) Aristotle and Immortality: no immortality of the soul because according to hylomorphism neither the substantial form (soul in this case) nor the prime matter ever exists alone. (26) Philosophy vs. opinion: philosophy is not opinion!, (27) Origin of Philosophy: curiosity and leisure, (28) Material vs. Formal object: Material object = general topic which you study and Formal object = the perspective from which you study the general topic,

(29) Discursive/deductive/demonstrative reasoning: Discursive = reasoning in steps, Deductive = reasoning from cause to effect, Demonstrative = to prove something true. (30) Mediate vs. immediate knowledge: Mediate = indirect, arrived at after steps, Immediate = direct, no steps needed. (31) Ontological status of philosophy: act of reasoning. (32) Essential and non-essential properties: Essential properties are those that belong to an individual because that individual is a member of a certain genus and species. Non-essential properties are irrelevant to definition and are called accidental or contingent.