Part 4 Reading Critically Chapter 12 Evaluating the Evidence

Instead of sticking with neutral, objective language, authors sometimes inject language designed to arouse the reader emotionally. This is often a sign of bias on the author’s part and serves as a signal to you that the author is trying to influence you.

Authors may use the following persuasive techniques:   1. Emotionally loaded language designed to appeal directly to your feelings rather than your reasoning abilities  2. Tear-jerking stories or references to people and causes that you empathize with  3. Figurative analogies  4. Manipulation of tone  5. Propaganda techniques such as bandwagon, plain folks, name calling, testimonial

When an author cites a testimonial, ask yourself the following questions:   Is the writer an authority in that particular field? Is this the writer’s specific area of competence? Is the writer biased? Is the writer likely to gain some advantage from the testimonial?

6. Psychological appeals The media frequently employs this technique to create ads that appeal directly to our desire for safety, power, prestige, sex, or popularity.   7. Moral appeals Authors may seek to appeal to your sense of morality or fair play. 8. Appeal to Authority Authors may call attention to the integrity, intelligence, or knowledge of themselves or others to convince you to trust their judgment and believe them.

To evaluate persuasive writing, you want to become better at recognizing the techniques we have just discussed. You should also pay attention to the following topics:   Background: Learn what you can about the author. What other books or articles has the author written? Is the author known for representing certain viewpoints? Is the author involved in advocacy organizations?

Assumptions: Try to identify the values and principles that form the author’s basic outlook. Do you agree with the author’s basic outlook? Contrast the author’s basic outlook to other possibilities. What are the values and principles at the bottom of opposing outlooks?   Organization: Pay attention to how a piece of writing is organized. How is the author structuring the argument? Where are the reasons or explanations? Do the reasons support the conclusion?

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning Introduction to Deductive and Inductive Reasoning   Drawing Conclusions: Deductive and Inductive Reasoning In the final step of analyzing a selection, the reader must evaluate the soundness of the author’s reasoning. All of us draw conclusions based on what we think is reasonable and acceptable. Often these conclusions are based on deductive or inductive reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning   De means “away from,” and when we engage in deductive reasoning, we reason away from premises to a conclusion. Often deductive reasoning involves reasoning from the more general to the more specific.

A deductive argument might have two premises and a conclusion. If both of these premises are true, must the conclusion be true? We would have to answer “yes.” That’s what makes this a valid deductive argument. This argument is called a syllogism. A syllogism is a deductive argument that has two premises and a conclusion. Not all deductive arguments are valid. A deductive argument is only sound when the premises are true.   If the argument is valid and the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Inductive Reasoning The word parts for “inductive” are   The word parts for “inductive” are in meaning “into” and duc meaning “to lead.” In inductive reasoning, specific examples, evidence, or propositions lead to a more general conclusion. Inductive arguments lead to conclusions that are only probably true. The better your information is, the more probably true your conclusion will be.

You can now see one important difference between deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning produces conclusions that are either true or false. But inductive reasoning produces conclusions that are only probably true or false.

The Scientific Process   Inductive and deductive reasoning are both involved in the “scientific process.” Scientists do research, which involves collecting data and analyzing it, and then they seek to draw a general conclusion or hypothesis from their research. This process of formulating hypotheses from research involves inductive reasoning. Scientists then use deductive reasoning to test their hypotheses. A hypothesis tells a scientist what should happen when the scientist collects further data or performs a further test. If the new data or test is consistent with the hypothesis, the hypothesis is confirmed; if not, the hypothesis needs to be modified. Scientists often have to revise their hypotheses to keep up with new research.

Chapter 12 Test Taking Tip— Key Words That Often Appear in Essay Questions Continued   Explain to make clear, to give reasons An explanation often involves showing cause-and-effect relationships or steps. Illustrate to use a diagram, chart, or figure, or specific examples to further explain something

Interpret to say what something means A question that asks for an interpretation usually wants you to state what something means to you. What are your beliefs or feelings about the meaning of the material? Be sure to back up your position with specific examples and details.   Justify to give reasons in support of a conclusion, theory, or opinion

List to put down your points one-by-one You may want to number each of the points in your list.   Outline to organize information into an outline, using headings and subheadings Your outline should reflect the main ideas and supporting details.

Prove to demonstrate that something is true by means of factual evidence or logical reasoning   Relate to discuss how two or more conclusions, theories, or opinions affect each other. Explain how one causes, limits, or develops the other. Review usually means to summarize, but a narrower meaning of it is to analyze critically

Summarize to put down the main points; to state briefly the key principles, facts, or ideas while avoiding details and personal comments   Trace to follow the course of development of something in a chronological or logical sequence You will want to discuss each stage of development from beginning to end.