Language Learning Theory Supervisor: Ms. Nguyen Nguyet Minh Students: Tran Thi Lan Nguyen thi Hanh Mai Thi Thuy Tang Thi Mai Duong Thi Ngoc Tu

Factors Affecting Second Language Learning Chapter 3. Factors Affecting Second Language Learning ( Pasty M. Lightbown & Nina Spada, How Languages are Learned - Second edition )

Outline Intelligence Aptitude Personality Motivation and attitudes I. Introduction II. Factors relevant to language learning: Intelligence Aptitude Personality Motivation and attitudes Learner preferences Learner beliefs Age of acquisition III. Summary

The “Good Language Learner” I. Introduction The “Good Language Learner” Are there personal characteristics that make one learner more successful than another? (Please turn to p. 50 and do the questionnaire)

Before looking at learner characteristics… Difficulties in research on learner characteristics and SLA: 1. There are many ways to define the “success” of language learning.

Difficulties in research on learner characteristics and SLA: 2. It is not possible to directly observe and measure qualities such as motivation, personality, aptitude, and intelligence.

Difficulties in research on learner characteristics and SLA: 3. These psychological variables are often not independent of one another.

Difficulties in research on learner characteristics and SLA: 4. A correlation of two factors does not mean that there is a causal relationship between them.

Factors relevant to language learning ? ?

Intelligence 1. Definition 2. Classification 3. Relations of intelligence on language learning 4. Research findings 5. Conclusion

Intelligence 1. Definition of Intelligence Intelligence mental abilities measured by an IQ test (IQ = intelligence quotient)

Intelligence 2. Classification In general, two main types of intelligence: 1. verbal/linguistic intelligence 2. mathematical/logical intelligence Five other types of intelligence (also related to language learning) 3. spatial intelligence, 4. bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 5. musical intelligence, 6. interpersonal intelligence, 7. intrapersonal intelligence.

Intelligence 3. Relations of intelligence on language learning 3.1 Linguistic intelligence: speaking, using words, writing, giving presentations, solving word problems. 3.2 Logical-mathematical intelligence: using numbers, logic, calculations; learning and understanding grammar rules. 3.3 Spatial intelligence: drawing, painting, using color, art, graphics, pictures, maps, and charts.

Intelligence 3. Affects of intelligence on language learning 3.4 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: muscular coordination, athletic skill, body language, drama and theater. 3.5 Musical intelligence: using music, tones, hearing; producing the intonation and rhythm of a language. 3.6 Interpersonal intelligence: talking with other people, understanding them, using language to communicate. 3.7 Intrapersonal intelligence: self-knowledge, self-confidence, using language to analyze yourself.

Intelligence 4. Research findings - Intelligence language analysis & rule learning - But, intelligence language learning Intelligence is not related to communication & interaction a strong factor a less important role

Intelligence 5. Conclusions An individual with strong academic performance/ intelligence is not necessarily a successful second language learner

Aptitude Definition Four types of abilities composing aptitude Research findings Conclusions

Aptitude 1. What is “aptitude”? = attitude + knowledge Aptitude refers to potential for achievement & make a prediction for future achievement Perseverance & consistency Listening & comprehension Abilities(verbal & nonverbal) Reasoning & interpretation

Aptitude 2. Four types of abilities composing aptitude 2. 1 The ability to identify and memorize new sounds 2.2 The ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences 2.3 The ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples 2.4 The ability to memorize new words

Aptitude 3. Research findings Aptitude is irrelevant to L2 learning with the adoption of a communicative approach to teaching (i.e., with a focus on meaning rather than on form)

Aptitude 4. Conclusions 1. Successful language learners are not necessarily strong in all of the components of aptitude. (e.g., Some may have strong memories but only average ability to figure out grammatical rules.) 2. Select appropriate teaching approaches and activities based on learners’ aptitude profiles to accommodate their differences in aptitude in teaching language

Personality 1. Definition 2. Factors of Personality 3. Research findings

Personality personality = traits 1. Definition According to Harmer that contribute the characteristics of an individual

Personality 2. Factors of Personality Extroversion Introversion Other factors

Personality Extroverted Learners be sociable have many friends need to have people to talk to don’t like study themselves

Personality Introverted Learners be quiet be fond of books rather than people tend to plan ahead do not like excitement

Personality Other factors Inhibition Self-esteem (self-confidence) Empathy Talkativeness Responsiveness

Personality 3. Research findings Extroversion is both associated with learners’ success and not at all Inhibition is a negative force for second language pronunciation performance. There is not a a clearly defined relationship between personality and SLA.

Personality 3. Research findings Personality may be a major factor only in the acquisition of conversation skills, but not literacy skills. Personality in the relationship with other factors contributes to successful learning

Motivation and attitude 1. Definition 2. Types of motivation 3. Research findings 4. Motivation in the classroom setting.

Motivation and attitude 1. Definition some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something. (Harmer, 2001) MOTIVATION

Motivation and attitude 2. Types of motivation Integrative motivation & Instrumental motivation (in terms of communicative needs)

Motivation and attitude 2. Types of motivation Integrative motivation the wish to identity with the larger community (Gardner and Lambert,1992)

Motivation and attitude 2. Types of motivation Instrumental motivation the need to learn For example: educational or occupational purpose

Motivation & Attitude 3. Research Findings Both integrative and instrumental types of motivation are related to success in L2 learning Cook (1991)

Motivation and attitude 4. Motivation in the classroom setting How are motivated learners? Participate actively in class Express interest in the subject-matter Study a great deal

Motivation & Attitude 4. Motivation in the classroom setting What can the teachers do? Motivating students in to the lesson. Varying the activities, tasks, and materials Using cooperative rather than competitive goals Creating a supportive and non-threatening learning atmosphere.

Learner Preferences (Learning Styles) Learning style An individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Reid 1995). 38/37

Cognitive learning styles Perceptual learning styles Cognitive learning styles

Perceptual learning styles Visual learners: Learn from seeing Aural/Auditory learners: Learn from listening Kinaesthetic learners: Learn from moving or doing Tactile learners: Learn from touching 40/37

Cognitive learning styles Field-independence vs. Field-dependence Reflectivity vs. Impulsivity Right-brain vs. Left-brain dominance Ambiguity tolerance 41/37

Cognitive learning styles Field dependent Field independent Pick out hidden figures in a complicated drawing more quickly See the whole drawing and have difficulty separating it into parts Perceive elements independently, focus on details Perceive the whole field or situation, focus on general meaning Be more analytical Be more relational 42/37

Cognitive learning styles Reflective learners Impulsive learners Make a slower, more calculated decision More systematic and more cautious in learning L2 Make a quick or gambling guess at an answer to a problem More intuitive and more willing to take risks in learning L2 43/37

Cognitive learning styles Right-brain dominance Left-brain dominance more efficient in processing holistic, integrative, and emotional information perceives and remembers visual, tactile, and auditory images is associated with logical, analytical thought, with mathematical and linear processing of information 44/37

Cognitive learning styles Ambiguity tolerance willing to accept innovative and creative possibilities not be cognitively or affectively disturbed by ambiguity and uncertainty too much tolerance of ambiguity can have a detrimental effect 45/37

Learner biliefs About language learning consist of general assumptions that students hold about themselves as learners About factors influencing language learning About the nature of language teaching (Victori & Lockhart 1995:224). 46/37

Examples of learner beliefs I think I can learn to speak English well. It is very important to have a firm understanding of the grammar of English. I can learn best if I am in an English-speaking country. It is helpful if the teacher corrects any errors I make. 47/37

Where do learner beliefs come from? Past experiences: both positive and negative Cultural background Personality: Individual differences 48/37

Importance of learner beliefs Play a central role in language learning L2 be strong mediating factors in learners’ L2 learning process: behavior, attitude and motivation influence the kinds of strategies they choose to learn new material 49/37

Age of Acquisition The introduction of some studies Critical Period Hypothesis Mastery of the spoken language Intuitions of grammaticality Activity Comparing child, adolescent and adult language learners At what age should second language instruction begin?

Patsy M. Lightbown and Nina Spada Children find it much easier to learn 2nd language. Example: Children from immigrant families speak the language of new community with native-like fluency

Reason There is a critical period for 2nd language acquisition, as in 1st  language acquisition, older learners must depend on more general learning abilities critical period ends somewhere around puberty or even earlier Younger learners have more time to devote to learning language

Reason Younger learners don’t experience so strong pressure to speak fluently and accurately form the very beginning Adults are often embarrassed by their lack of mastery of the language, they can feel frustrated

Age of acquisition - younger learners growing up in an informal language learning environment usually have more time to devote to language learning - they have more opportunities to hear and use the language in environment where they do not experience strong pressure to speak fluently - adults are often embarrassed by their lack of mastery of the language - studies: in the early stages of second language development, older learners are more efficient than younger learners - in educational research it has been reported that learners who began learning their second language at a primary school level did not fare better in the long run than those who began learning their second language in early adolescence

Cognitive Explanations (Lenneberg, 1967) Children Automatic LA – cognitively open See only similarities Lacks flexible thinking Are self- centred Haven’t developed social attitudes Adults Not automatic LA/ natural LA See similarities and differences Think flexibly Become de- centred Have strong social attitudes

Cognitive Explanations Adolescents learn more rapidly than children as they can not only ‘pick up language like children, but also supplement this process by conscious study. Adolescents are more efficient in SLA than adults because they have better memories.

Affective Explanations (Brown) SLA is related to 4 stages of acculturation Initial excitement and euphoria Culture shock→ hostility – target culture Culture stress- gradual & hesitating recovery Assimilation/adaptation to the new culture. Young children acquire L2 more quickly because of socio- culturally resilient, less culture- bound than adults & move through stages of acculturation more quickly.

“Primary” and “Secondary” Levels of Language (Neufeld) Primary level = functional vocab. + mastery of pronunciation + gram. Rules. Secondary level = complex gram. structures + different lang. styles.

Grammar Pronunciation Children Adults Adults BEST Children BEST GOOD Syntax and Morphology Pronunciation Children BEST Adults BEST Adults GOOD Children GOOD Adolescents BETTER Adolescents BETTER

“Primary” and “Secondary” Levels of Language (Neufeld) All learners- innate ability to acquire primary levels. Children – more likely to achieve sec. levels than adults as they are strongly motivated by the need to be accepted by their peer groups. Children seem learn faster than adult because their learning often goes hand in hand with physical actions. They have to comprehend the language in play and school environments

Critical Period Hypothesis Lenneberg defines CPH as . . . “There is a time in human development when the brain is predisposed for success in language learning Ellis (1997) defines CPH as . . . a period during which “target-language competence in an L2 can only be achieved if learning commences before a certain age is reached. (e.g. the onset of puberty)”

Critical Period Hypothesis Older learners- problems with accent, they almost always have a noticeable ‘foreign accent’

Mastery of the spoken language

Mastery of the spoken language The age of acquisition is very important factor in setting limits on the development of native-like mastery of a second language and this limitation does not apply only to accent. Native-like mastery of the spoken lang. is difficult to attain by older learners, but possible.

Intuitions of grammaticality Experiment shows that people who started learning language before the puberty are also better in grammar.

ACTIVITY Is younger really better? 1978- experiment in Holland (very detailed), how English speakers learnt Dutch Result: 1) The adolescents better than children and adults 2) Adolescents and adults learned faster than children in the first few months of exposure to Dutch 3) By the end of the year children caught up or surpassed adults on several measures Conclusion-> there is no critical period (but results can be also interpreted in other ways)

At what age should second language instruction begin? Generally, it’s better to start learning lang. as early as possible, but it depends on what is your goal. If the goal is native-like mastery of lang., it’s better for learner to be completely surrounded by the lang. as early as possible When the goal is basic communicative ability, it may be more efficient to begin learning of 2nd lang. later, e.g. at the age of 10,11,12

Summary 1. Age is only one of the characteristics which affects the learner’s L2 learning. The opportunities for learning (i.e., context - both inside and outside the classroom), the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence, aptitude, personality, and learning styles have also been found to be important determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning.

Summary 2. The study of individual learner variables is not easy and the results of research are not entirely satisfactory, partly because of the lack of clear definitions and methods for measuring the individual characteristics and partly because of the complex interactions of those characteristics. Thus, it remains difficult to make precise predictions about how a particular individual’s characteristics influence his/her success as a language learner.

Summary 3. Implications for second language teaching: Even though the research findings are not conclusive in the relationship between personal factors and second language learning, teachers should take learners’ individual aptitudes, personalities, and learning styles into account to create a learning environment in which virtually all learners can be successful in learning a second language.

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