Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory Module 33

Forgetting An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval. Preview Question 10: Why do we forget? At what points in the memory system can our memory fail us?

H.M. H.M. became unable to form new conscious memories This is called anterograde amnesia He did have the ability to learn nonverbal tasks Can be classically conditioned They are able to form implicit memories Retrograde amnesia: inability to recall past memories

Implicit Memory H.M. is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural (implicit). C B A HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game.

We cannot remember what we do not encode. Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we do not encode.

Encoding Failures Age can effect ability to encode Brain areas are less responsive in older adults Attention failures—can’t encode what we aren’t attending to

Storage Decay Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve.

Retaining Spanish Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years. Andrew Holbrooke/ Corbis

Storage Decay The physical storage of memory is still a mystery BUT…scientists think memories may be inaccessible because: They were never encoded They were discarded They cannot be retrieved

Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).

PORN: Proactive. Old. Retroactive. New. Types of Interference Proactive interference: OLD learning disrupts recall of new information Retroactive interference: NEW learning disrupts recall of old information PORN: Proactive. Old. Retroactive. New.

Interference Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information.

Retroactive Interference Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall.

Interference Interference isn’t always negative Positive transfer: previously learned information facilitates learning of new information

Motivated Forgetting Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories. Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Culver Pictures Sigmund Freud

Today’s View Most memory researchers think repression rarely, if ever, occurs We can forget unnecessary, neutral information We have a really hard time forgetting emotionally charged events

Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.

Memory Construction While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent. Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. Preview Question 11: How accurate are our memories?

Misinformation and Imagination Effects Elizabeth Loftus Experiments: Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event. Depiction of the actual accident.

Misinformation Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

Memory Construction A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

Eyewitness Testimony https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nbARxiM0W_Q https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4V6aoYuDcg

Source Amnesia Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution).

Children’s Eyewitness Recall Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed. However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases. In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse.

Memories of Abuse Are memories of abuse repressed or constructed? Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood sexual abuse results in repressed memories. However, other psychologists question such beliefs and think that such memories may be constructed.

Constructed Memories Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories. Don Shrubshell

Loftus TED Talk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PB2OegI6wvI

Consensus on Childhood Abuse Leading psychological associations of the world agree on the following concerning childhood sexual abuse: Injustice happens. Incest and other sexual abuse happen. People may forget. Recovered memories are commonplace. Recovered memories under hypnosis or drugs are unreliable. Memories of things happening before 3 years of age are unreliable. Memories, whether real or false, are emotionally upsetting.

Improving Memory Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material. Space rehearsal is better than mass rehearsal Make material personally meaningful. Use mnemonic devices: associate with peg words — something already stored make up a story chunk — acronyms Preview Question 12: How might we apply memory principles to everyday situations, such as remembering a person’s name or even the material of this chapter?

Improving Memory Activate retrieval cues— mentally recreate the situation and mood. Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation. Minimize interference: Test your own knowledge. Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know. © LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis