Social Stratification A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy

Basic Principles A trait of society Persists over generations Doesn’t reflect individual differences, but society’s structure Persists over generations Social mobility happens slowly. Universal but variable While universal, it varies in type. Involves not just inequality, but beliefs Ideologies justify existence of social stratification.

The Caste System Birth determines social position in four ways: Social stratification based on ascription, or birth Birth determines social position in four ways: Occupation Marriage within caste Social life is restricted to “own kind.” Belief systems are often tied to religious dogma. Many of the world’s societies are caste systems. Caste system is illegal, but elements survive.

Social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement Class Systems Social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement Social mobility for people with education and skills All people gain equal standing before the law. Work involves some personal choice. Meritocracy: Based on personal merit

Class Systems Status consistency–The degree of uniformity in a person's social standing across various dimensions of social inequality. A caste system has limited social mobility and high status consistency. The greater mobility of class systems produces less status consistency.

Figure 10.1 Economic Inequality in Selected Countries

Ideology Plato Marx Spencer Cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality Plato Every culture considers some type of inequality just. Marx Capitalist societies keep wealth and power for a few. Spencer “Survival of the fittest”

The Davis-Moore Thesis Social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society The greater the importance of a position, the more rewards a society attaches to it. Egalitarian societies offer little incentive for people to try their best. Positions a society considers more important must reward enough to draw talented people

Karl Marx: Class and Conflict Most people have one of two relationships with the means of production. Bourgeoisie own productive property. The proletariat works for the bourgeoisie. Capitalism creates great inequality in power and wealth. This oppression would drive the working majority to organize and overthrow capitalism.

Why No Marxist Revolution? Fragmentation of the capitalist class Higher standard of living More worker organizations More extensive legal protections

Was Marx Right? Wealth remains highly concentrated. White-collar jobs offer no more income, security, or satisfaction than factory work did a century ago.

Was Marx Right? Current workers’ benefits came from struggle. Workers have lost benefits recently. Ordinary people still face disadvantages that the law cannot overcome.

Max Weber: Class, Status, and Power Socioeconomic status (SES) Composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality Class position Viewed classes as a continuum from high to low Status Power Inequality in history

Stratification and Interaction Differences in social class position can affect interaction. People interact primarily with others of similar social standing. Conspicuous consumption refers to buying and using products because of the "statement" they make about social position.

Figure 10.1 Applying Theory Social Stratification

Stratification and Technology: A Global Perspective Hunting and gathering societies Horticultural, pastoral, and agrarian societies Industrial societies The Kuznets curve Greater technological sophistication generally is accompanied by more pronounced social stratification.

Figure 10.2 Social Stratification and Technological Development: The Kuznets Curve The Kuznets curve shows that greater technological sophistication is generally accompanied by more pronounced social stratification. The trend reverses itself as industrial societies relax rigid, castelike distinctions in favor of greater opportunity and equality under the law. Political rights are more widely extended, and there is even some leveling of economic differences. However, the emergence of postindustrial society has brought an upturn in economic inequality, as indicated by the broken line added by the author. Source: Created by the author, based on Kuznets (1955) and Lenski (1966).

Global Map 10.1: Income Inequality in Global Perspective

Social Stratification Vonnegut: An egalitarian society can exist only if everyone is reduced to the lowest common denominator. Davis-Moore thesis: Class differences reflect variation in human abilities and the relative importance of different jobs. Marx: Inequality causes human suffering and conflict; social stratification springs from injustice and greed.

Social Class in the United States

A Middle-Class Society Everyone stands equal under the law. We celebrate individuality. We interact mostly with people like ourselves. The US is an affluent society. Socioeconomic status (SES) reflects money (income, wealth & power), occupational prestige and schooling.

Distribution of Income and Wealth in the United States Income, and especially wealth, is divided unequally in US Society. .

Dimensions of Class Income Earning from work or investments Wealth The total value of money and other assets, minus any debt Power The ability to control, even in the face of resistance Occupational prestige Job-related status Schooling Key to better career opportunities

US Stratification: Merit and Caste Ancestry Born to privilege or poverty makes a big difference Race and ethnicity Disparity still exists when comparing majority and minority groups on social and financial variables. People of English ancestry have always enjoyed the most wealth and the greatest power in US society. Gender More poor families are headed by women. On average, women have less income, wealth, and occupational prestige than men.

Table 11.3 Schooling of U.S. Adults, 2006 (aged 25 and over)

Social Classes The upper class 5% of the population Earn at least $197,000 a year The middle class 40-45% of the population Large middle class has tremendous cultural influence. The working class 33% of the population Blue-collar jobs yield between $25,000 and $50,000 a year. The lower class The remaining 20% of the population Working poor hold low-prestige jobs that provide little income.

Upper Class The upper-uppers The lower-uppers The “blue bloods” Membership almost always based on ascription “Old money” Set apart by the amount of wealth their families control Devote time to community activities The lower-uppers The working rich The “new rich” Can still be excluded from some organizations

Middle Class More racial and ethnic diversity Upper-middles $113,000 to $197,000 yearly income Education is important High occupational prestige Involvement in local politics Average-middles Less occupational prestige Few white collar or high-skilled blue collar jobs Income provides modest security (50k – 112k)

Working Class Lower-middle class Marxist “industrial proletariat” $25,000 to $50,000 annual income Routine jobs with less satisfaction 2/3 own their own homes Fewer children go to college (1/3) Vulnerable to financial problems caused by unemployment or illness

Lower Class 37 million Americans classified as poor in 2007 Others are “working poor” with minimum-wage jobs Half complete high school, one in four attend college 45% own their homes in less desirable urban neighborhoods or rural south

Per Capita Income across the United States

The Difference Class Makes Health Amount and type of health care Values and attitudes Vary with position Politics Conservative or liberal Family and gender Type of parental involvement Socialization practices Relationships and responsibilities

Social Mobility Upward Downward Structural social mobility College degree or higher-paying job Downward Drop out of school, losing a job or divorce Structural social mobility Changes in society or national economic trends Intra-generational mobility Change in social position during a person’s lifetime Intergenerational mobility Upward or downward movement that takes place across generations within a family

Myth vs. Reality Social mobility has been fairly high. Long-term trend has been upward. Intergenerational mobility is small, not dramatic. Social mobility since the 1970s has been uneven.

Figure 11.2 Mean Annual Income, US Families, 1980-2007 (in 2007 dollars, adjusted for inflation) The gap between high-income and low-income families is wider today than it was in 1980. Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2008).

The American Dream Earnings have stalled for many workers From 1974-2007, worker income rose slightly, even as the number of work hours increased and cost of necessities went way up. More jobs offer little income Many industrial jobs have gone overseas, reducing the number of high-paying US jobs. Young people are remaining at (and returning) home For the first time ever, half of Americans age 18 to 24 are living with their parents.

Median Annual Income, US Families, 1950-2007 Average family income in the US grew rapidly between 1950 and 1970. Since then, however, the increase has been smaller. Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2008).

Global Economy and US Class Structure Global economic expansion Jobs changed from manufacturing to service work. Creates upward mobility for educated people Investments for those with money Downsizing in companies affects average workers. Many US families working harder to stay afloat

Extent of Poverty Relative poverty–The deprivation of some people in relation to those who have more Absolute poverty–A deprivation of resources that is life-threatening Poverty line About three times what the government estimates people must spend for food. The income of the average poor family is 60% of this amount. Extent of US poverty 12.5% (37 million) are impoverished.

Figure 11.4 The Poverty Rate in the United States, 1960-2007 The share of our population in poverty fell dramatically between 1960 and 1970. Since then, the poverty rate has remained between 10% and 15% of the population. Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2008).

Demographics of Poverty Age In 2007, 50% of US poor were age 24 or younger. Race and ethnicity Two-thirds of all poor are white. In 2007, 24.5% of all African Americans and 21.5% of Hispanics were poor. Gender 56% of poor are women. Women who head households are at high risk of poverty.

Explaining Poverty Blame the poor Blame society The poor are mostly responsible for their own poverty. Culture of poverty produces a self-perpetuating cycle of poverty Time limits for welfare Blame society Little opportunity for work William Julius Wilson: Little opportunity for work; not enough jobs to support families

National Map 11.2 Poverty across the United States

The Working Poor In 2007, 18% of heads of poor families worked at least 50 weeks a year. Individual ability and personal effort play a part in shaping social position. However, society is the primary cause of poverty. A rising share of available jobs offers only low wages

Homeless No precise count Causes Experts estimate 754,000 on any given night Causes Poverty One-third are substance abusers One-fourth are mentally ill Many homeless are entire families due to structural changes in economy.

Global Stratification Patterns of social inequality in the world as a whole

Changing Terminology Old terminology Problems with old terminology First world–Industrial rich countries Second world–Less industrial socialist countries Third world–Non-industrial poor countries Problems with old terminology After the Cold War, the second world no longer existed. Third World is too economically diverse to be meaningful.

Changing Terminology New terminology High-income–Nations with the highest standard of living Middle-income–Somewhat poorer nations with economic development typical for the world as a whole Low-income–Nations with lowest productivity and extensive poverty The extent of global inequality is much greater than these comparisons suggest. Well-off people in rich countries live “worlds apart” from the poorest people in low-income countries.

High-Income Countries First to develop during industrial revolution two centuries ago Enjoy over half the world’s income More income means control of world’s financial markets. Control of financial markets means control of other countries. Examples: United States, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, Canada, etc.

Distribution of World Income and Wealth

Middle-Income Countries Limited industrialization Many people are rural and engage in agricultural activities. A general lack of good education, medical care, and safe water Examples: Russia, Eastern European countries, Latin America, and some African countries

Low-Income Countries Mostly poor, rural economies Agrarian, with some industry Life expectancy is very short. Examples: Africa, and much of Asia

Figure 12.2 The Relative Share of Income and Population by Level of Economic Development

The Severity of Poverty Poverty in poor countries is more severe than it is in rich countries. The United Nations found that: Norway had the highest “quality of life” rating; United States followed close behind Niger had the lowest

Global Map 12.2 Median Age at Death in Global Perspective

The Severity of Poverty Relative poverty People lack resources that others take for granted. This sort of poverty exists in every society, rich or poor. Absolute poverty A life-threatening lack of resources One-third or more of the people in low-income countries experience poverty at this level.

Extent of Poverty Is poverty life threatening? In some African countries, half of annual deaths are children under the age of 10. Every 10 minutes, 100 people around the world die of hunger. 1.4 billion people suffer from chronic hunger in the world.

Poverty and Children Poverty and children 100 million children in poor countries are forced to work the streets (e.g., beg, steal, selling sex). 100 million children have deserted their families and live on the streets. Many girls, with little or no access to medical assistance, become pregnant. 50 million street children are found in Latin American cities. In Darfur (Sudan), impoverished children are forced to join armed groups, provide physical labor without pay, and work as sex slaves.

Women, Slavery, and Poverty In all societies, a woman’s work is unrecognized, undervalued, and underpaid. Sweatshop workers are mostly women. 70% of the world’s 1 billion people living near absolute poverty are women. Slavery Chattel slavery–One person owns another. Child slavery–A more common form of bondage Debt bondage–Employers hold workers to pay debts. Servile forms of marriage–Women married against their will or forced into prostitution.

Human Trafficking The movement of men, women, and children from one place to another for the purpose of performing forced labor People are lured to a new country with the promise of a job, then forced to become prostitutes or farm laborers. Or people adopt foreign children and force them to work in sweatshops.

Explanations of Global Poverty Technology One-quarter of the people in low-income countries use human or animal power to farm land. Population growth Population for poor countries in Africa doubles every 25 years. Cultural patterns People resist innovations, accept slavery as a way of life. Social stratification Low-income countries distribute wealth very unequally.

Correlates of Global Poverty Gender inequality Raising living standards means improving women’s standing. Global power relationships Colonialism–The process by which some nations enrich themselves through political and economic control of other nations Neocolonialism–A “new” form of global power relationships that involves not direct political control but economic exploitation by multinational corporations Multinational corporation–A huge business that operates in many countries

Applying Theory Global Poverty

Modernization Theory Historical perspective Cultural perspective Model of economic development that explains global inequality in terms of technological and cultural differences between societies Historical perspective Centuries ago, the entire world was poor. Exploration, trade, and the industrial revolution transformed Western Europe then North America. Cultural perspective Weber: Protestant Reformation reshaped traditional Catholicism. Individualism replaced the traditional emphasis on family and community.

Rostow’s Stages of Modernization Traditional stage Changing traditional views Take-off stage Use of talents and imaginations Drive to technological maturity Diversified economy takes over High mass consumption Mass production stimulates consumption

The Role of Rich Nations Controlling population Exporting birth control and educating people on its importance Increasing food production The use of new hybrid seeds, modern irrigation methods, the use of chemicals and pesticides Introducing industrial technology Machinery and information must be shared if shifts in economies are to happen. Providing foreign aid Money can be used for equipment necessary for change.

Critical Evaluation Modernization simply hasn’t happened in many nations. Fails to recognize how rich nations benefit from the status quo of poor nations Fails to see that international relations affect all nations Ethnocentric: It holds up the richest nations as the standard to judge other societies Blames global poverty on the poor societies

Dependency Theory Historical perspective Importance of colonialism A model of economic and social development that explains global inequality in terms of the historical exploitation of poor nations by rich ones. Historical perspective People living in poor countries were better off in the past than they are now. Economic position of rich & poor are linked. Importance of colonialism Europeans colonized much of the west, south & east. African slave trade is the most brutal form of human exploitation. Neocolonialism is the “essence” of the modern capitalistic world economy.

Figure 12.4 Africa’s Colonial History For more than a century, most of Africa was colonized by European nations, with France dominating in the northwest region of the continent and Great Britain dominating in the east and south.

Wallerstein’s Capitalist World Economy Today’s world economy is rooted in the colonization that began 500 years ago. Rich countries form the core of the world economy being enriched by raw materials from around the world. Low-income countries are the periphery, providing inexpensive labor and a market for industrial products. Middle-income countries form the semiperiphery, having a closer tie to the core.

Wallerstein’s Ideas The world economy benefits rich nations by generating profits and harms the rest of the world by perpetuating poverty; thus the world economy makes poor nations dependent on rich ones. Three factors: Narrow, export-oriented economies: Poor countries produce only a few crops for export to rich countries. Lack of industrial capacity: Poor countries must sell raw materials to rich countries, then buy finished products at high prices. Foreign debt: Poor countries owe the rich countries $1 trillion dollars, including hundreds of billions to the United States.

Critical Evaluation Wrongly treats wealth as a zero-sum game Wrong to blame rich nations for global poverty Too simplistic citing capitalism as the single factor Repressive corrupt regimes, stifling cultural tradition More protest than policy Thinly disguised call for world socialism

Figure 12.5 The World’s Increasing Economic Inequality