Conservation Values & Ethics Photo of Auguste Rodin’s “The Thinker” from Wikipedia

Ethics The philosophy of morality, which is concerned with what is right (good, legal, etc.) and wrong (bad, illegal, etc.) Ethical principles constrain self-serving behavior in deference to some other good See G. C. Williams on evolution & morality… Photo of Auguste Rodin’s “The Thinker” from Wikipedia

Value “Worth in usefulness or importance to the possessor” Note that this general definition has two different types of criteria for gauging value, i.e., usefulness (utility, as in instrumental value) and importance (which includes inherent or intrinsic aspects of value). In addition, notice that value also depends on who the possessor is (e.g., for the population of grizzly bears in Yellowstone, the possessor could be the Federal Gov’t., the humans who visit the park, or the bears themselves). Photo of Auguste Rodin’s “The Thinker” from Wikipedia; Definition from The American Heritage Dictionary (1973)

What do you see or think of when you look at this photo What do you see or think of when you look at this photo? In what ways do you imagine this place having value? Some will see dollar signs associated with the timber, some will see a tranquil place to go camping, some will see opportunities for development, whereas others may see nothing beyond some trees and other plants.

Instrumental Value Value that Nature has as a means to another’s (i.e., mankind’s) end Anthropocentric viewpoint (i.e., from the perspective of Homo sapiens as “possessor”) I am illustrating the anthropocentric viewpoint by placing a photo of a grizzly sow and her cub on a map of Yellowstone National Park. Students should know the difference between “anthropogenic” and “anthropocentric.” Map from pubs.usgs.gov; photo of grizzlies from Wikipedia

Intrinsic Value Value that Nature has as an end in itself Biocentric or ecocentric viewpoint (i.e., from the perspective of Nature as “possessor”) E.g., biodiversity is valuable simply because it exists E.g., non-human species have rights I am illustrating the biocentric and ecocentric viewpoint by placing a photo of a grizzly sow and her cub on a photo of western North American wildlands. Photos from Wikipedia

Instrumental & Intrinsic Value - Material Anthropocentric Value - Non-material Intrinsic Biocentric

Conservation Biologists / Environmentalists in the U. S. Gifford Pinchot (1865 – 1946) First Chief of the U.S. Forest Service (1905 – 1910) Coined “conservation ethic” Pinchot clearly recognized the anthropocentric material Instrumental Value of Nature – indeed he emphasized the anthropocentric material value of Nature. U. S. American conservation efforts are traced in our textbook to three philosophical movements: Romantic-Transcendental Conservation Ethic Resource Conservation Ethic Evolutionary-Ecological Land Ethic Pinchot viewed resources individually and was primarily concerned with those having immediate utility. He recognized the impact that human consumption was having on resources, so developed his version of the “conservation ethic.” Resource Conservation Ethic Utilitarian, anthropocentric “natural resource” philosophy; “the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time” Photo from Wikipedia

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 – 1882) Nature (1836) Conservation Biologists / Environmentalists in the U. S. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 – 1882) Nature (1836) Henry David Thoreau (1817 – 1862) Walden (1854) John Muir (1838 – 1914) Founded Sierra Club (1892) Those who have come to be categorized under the Romantic-Transcendental Conservation Ethic clearly recognized both the anthropocentric material and non-material Instrumental Value of Nature. U. S. American conservation efforts are traced in our textbook to three philosophical movements: Romantic-Transcendental Conservation Ethic Resource Conservation Ethic Evolutionary-Ecological Land Ethic From Wikipedia: “In 1837, Emerson befriended Henry David Thoreau. Though they had likely met as early as 1835, in the fall of 1837, Emerson asked Thoreau, "Do you keep a journal?" The question went on to have a lifelong inspiration for Thoreau.” Whether or not you have been or ever are inspired to keep a lifelong journal, I have asked you to endeavor to keep a journal of thoughts, ideas, observations and questions relevant to Conservation Biology throughout our semester-long course. These philosophers recognized what E. O. Wilson has much more recently referred to as “biophilia.” Romantic-Transcendental Conservation Ethic “Nature has uses other than human economic gain;” biophilia Image of Emerson, photos of Thoreau and T. Roosevelt with Muir from Wikipedia

Conservation Biologists / Environmentalists in the U. S. Aldo Leopold (1887 – 1948) A Sand County Almanac (1949) Perhaps more than those who are categorized under the other two “ethics” (Resource Conservation, Romantic-Transcendental Conservation), Leopold recognized the Intrinsic Value of Nature – ecological and evolutionary processes as valuable unto themselves. U. S. American conservation efforts are traced in our textbook to three philosophical movements: Romantic-Transcendental Conservation Ethic Resource Conservation Ethic Evolutionary-Ecological Land Ethic Evolutionary-Ecological Land Ethic Arose together with the Modern Synthesis and maturing ecological theory; recognizes the complexity, interconnectedness (including humans) and dynamism of Nature Photo from Oregon State University

William Wordsworth’s (1770-1850) “Daffodils” (1804) I WANDER'D lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the Milky Way, They stretch'd in never-ending line Along the margin of a bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. The waves beside them danced; but they Out-did the sparkling waves in glee: A poet could not but be gay, In such a jocund company: I gazed -- and gazed -- but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought: For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils. The last few lines especially convey a sense of instrumental value in the spirit of biophilia. Photo of a field of daffodils in Cornwall, England from Wikipedia

Instrumental Value Non-material Psycho-spiritual – (e.g., biophilia, as contrasted with biophobia) aesthetic beauty, religious awe, scientific knowledge, etc. Material… Goods – food, fuel, fiber, medicine, etc. Services – pollination, nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, decomposition, etc. Four categories of instrumental value. Biophilia is the evolved sense of well-being that Nature creates in humans. Note that basic science / scientific knowledge appears under both headings. Information – genetic engineering, applied biology, basic science, etc.

Instrumental Value Daily et al. (1997, Science) provide this list of ecosystem goods & services: Production of ecosystem goods (e.g., seafood, wild game, forage, timber, biomass fuels, natural fibers, many pharmaceuticals, precursors of industrial products); Purification of air & water; Mitigation of droughts & floods; Generation & preservation of soils and renewal of their fertility; Detoxification & decomposition of wastes; Pollination of crops & natural vegetation; Dispersal of seeds; Cycling & movement of nutrients; Control of the vast majority of potential agricultural pests; Maintenance of biodiversity; Protection of coastal shores from erosion by waves; Protection from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays; Partial stabilization of climate; Moderation of weather extremes and their impacts; Provision of aesthetic beauty and intellectual stimulation that lift the human spirit… Daily, Gretchen C., Susan Alexander, Paul R. Ehrlich, Larry Goulder, Jane Lubchenco, Pamela A. Matson, Harold A. Mooney, Sandra Postel, Stephen H. Schneider, David Tilman, and George M. Woodwell. 1997. Ecosystem services: Benefits supplied to human societies by natural ecosystems. Issues in Ecology 2:1-16. See also: G. Daily & Ellison – The New Economy of Nature S. Levin – Fragile Dominion Ecosystem goods & services illustrated with photos of wetland, pollinator & “decomposer” from Wikipedia

Instrumental Value Costanza et al. (1997, Nature) provide this list of ecosystem goods & services: Gas regulation; Climate regulation; Disturbance regulation; Water regulation; Water supply; Erosion control & sediment retention; Soil formation; Nutrient cycling; Waste treatment; Pollination; Biological control; Refugia; Food production; Raw materials; Genetic resources; Recreation; Cultural… Costanza, Robert, Ralph d'Arge, Rudolf de Groot, Stephen Farber, Monica Grasso, Bruce Hannon, Karin Limburg, Shahid Naeem, Robert V. O'Neill, Jose Paruelo, Robert G. Raskin, Paul Sutton & Marjan van den Belt. 1997. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:253-260. Ecosystem goods & services illustrated with photos of wetland, pollinator & “decomposer” from Wikipedia

Monetizing Instrumental Value of Nature Costanza et al. (1997, Nature) provide this estimate for the value of these ecosystem goods & services: ~ $33,000,000,000,000 / yr […and the gross world product (the sum of all nations’ gross national products) is ~ $18,000,000,000,000 / yr] Costanza, Robert, Ralph d'Arge, Rudolf de Groot, Stephen Farber, Monica Grasso, Bruce Hannon, Karin Limburg, Shahid Naeem, Robert V. O'Neill, Jose Paruelo, Robert G. Raskin, Paul Sutton & Marjan van den Belt. 1997. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:253-260. Ecosystem goods & services illustrated with photos of wetland, pollinator & “decomposer” from Wikipedia

Monetizing Instrumental Value of Nature Balmford et al. (2002) refined the estimate of Costanza et al. (1997) and concluded: “We estimate that the overall benefit:cost ratio of an effective global program for the conservation of wild nature is at least 100:1” Balmford, Andrew, Aaron Buner, Philip Cooper, Robert Costanza, Stephen Farber, Rhys E. Green, Martin Jenkins, Paul Jeffries, Valma Jessamy, Joah Madden, Kat Munro, Norman Myers, Shahid Naeem, Jouni Paavola, Matthew Rayment, Sergio Rosendo, Joan Roughgarden, Kate Trumper & R. Kerry Turner. 2002. Economic reasons for conserving wild nature. Science 297:950-953. In other words, we would reap 100 times more monetary rewards than we would spend for a concerted, global set of comprehensive conservation actions. Ecosystem goods & services illustrated with photos of wetland, pollinator & “decomposer” from Wikipedia

Monetizing Instrumental Value of Nature …. Generally Ignores Intrinsic Value Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) German philosopher – among the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment “Everything has either a price or a dignity [intrinsic value]. Whatever has a price can be replaced by something else as its equivalent; on the other hand, whatever is above all price, and therefore admits of no equivalent, has a dignity” See Groom et al. (2006, pg. 113): “Biocentric environmental philosophers who claim that intrinsic value exists objectively… reason as follows. In contrast to a machine… an organism is self-organized and self-directed…” Image from Wikipedia; quote from Kant (1785) Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals

Religion-Based Conservation Ethics Judeo-Christian Worldview The Judeo-Christian Bible calls for man’s dominion and stewardship of Nature, but the Judeo-Christian God also apparently conferred intrinsic value on every living creature by pronouncing Creation to be “good” (see Genesis). God apparently conferred intrinsic value on every living creature by pronouncing Creation to be “good” (see Judeo-Christian Bible: Genesis) Images from Wikipedia

Religion-Based Conservation Ethics Judeo-Christian Worldview Wikipedia photo downloaded 9/15/15: "Pope Francis Korea Haemi Castle 19 (cropped)" by Korea.net / Korean Culture and Information Service (Photographer name). Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pope_Francis_Korea_Haemi_Castle_19_(cropped).jpg#/media/File:Pope_Francis_Korea_Haemi_Castle_19_(cropped).jpg Second encyclical of Pope Francis – Laudato si‘: On care for our common home Photo from Wikimedia

Religion-Based Conservation Ethics Islamic Worldview The Koran teaches that humans have a privileged place in Nature; even so, Allah (God) calls for man’s stewardship to provide a just distribution of natural resources across generations. The Koran teaches that Allah (God) calls for man’s stewardship to provide a just distribution of natural resources across generations Images from Wikipedia

Religion-Based Conservation Ethics Hindu Worldview All beings are a manifestation of the one essential Being (Brahman), so human beings are to identify with & respect other forms of life Images from Wikipedia

Religion-Based Conservation Ethics Jaina Worldview Parallel paths of asceticism (eschewing physical pleasure) and noninjury of all living things (ahimsa) free the soul from future rebirth in the material realm Few adherents, but Jainism has great influence, especially in India Images from Wikipedia

Religion-Based Conservation Ethics Buddhist Worldview Regards other organisms as companions on the path to enlightenment (nirvana), through an explicit ethic of non-injury of and boundless loving-kindness for all beings Images from Wikipedia

Religion-Based Conservation Ethics Buddhist Worldview “Our beautiful world is facing many crises.... It is not a time to pretend everything´s good” 14th Dalai Lama (b. 1935) The most recent spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism (retired in March 2011) is arguably the foremost conservationist among the world’s religious leaders Photo from Wikipedia

Human enterprise created the modern Biodiversity Crisis and threatens a vast array of Ecosystem Services Why should we care? Ehrlich & Wilson (1991, Science) provide their three-point answer… I use Ehrlich & Wilson (1991) to illustrate that there are other ways of partitioning types of values than simply intrinsic vs. instrumental, since Ehrlich & Wilson (1991) clearly include both intrinsic and instrumental value in their first category of reasons to care (i.e., ethical and esthetic reasons). Reference: Ehrlich, Paul R. & Edward O. Wilson. 1991. Biodiversity studies: Science and policy. Science 253:758-762. [Reasons to preserve biodiversity: ethics, esthetics, economics & ecosystem services.] Photo of P. R. Ehrlich from Stanford U.; photo of E. O. Wilson from Wikipedia

Human enterprise created the modern Biodiversity Crisis and threatens a vast array of Ecosystem Services Why should we care? Ehrlich & Wilson (1991, Science) provide their three-point answer… 1. Ethical & esthetic reasons (instrumental & intrinsic value) E.g., would you rather live in a world with or without grizzly bears, orchids, and dragonflies? E.g., do we humans have the right to drive species to extinction? E.g., do we humans have the right to leave the world in worse shape for our children and grandchildren than it was in when we were born? I use Ehrlich & Wilson (1991) to illustrate that there are other ways of partitioning types of values than simply intrinsic vs. instrumental, since Ehrlich & Wilson (1991) clearly include both intrinsic and instrumental value in their first category of reasons to care (i.e., ethical and esthetic reasons). Reference: Ehrlich, Paul R. & Edward O. Wilson. 1991. Biodiversity studies: Science and policy. Science 253:758-762. [Reasons to preserve biodiversity: ethics, esthetics, economics & ecosystem services.]

Human enterprise created the modern Biodiversity Crisis and threatens a vast array of Ecosystem Services Why should we care? Ehrlich & Wilson (1991, Science) provide their three-point answer… 2. Potential for new discoveries (instrumental value) …in food science, the pharmaceutical industry, and manufacturing owing to the vast riches of genetic biodiversity I use Ehrlich & Wilson (1991) to illustrate that there are other ways of partitioning types of values than simply intrinsic vs. instrumental, since Ehrlich & Wilson (1991) clearly include both intrinsic and instrumental value in their first category of reasons to care (i.e., ethical and esthetic reasons). Reference: Ehrlich, Paul R. & Edward O. Wilson. 1991. Biodiversity studies: Science and policy. Science 253:758-762. [Reasons to preserve biodiversity: ethics, esthetics, economics & ecosystem services.] 3. The economic value of ecosystem services (instrumental value) (see Costanza et al. [1997] & Balmford et al. [2002])

Valuing nature and assessing the reliability of sources [please view for next time]… “Mountaintop Mining” Stephen Colbert interview with Margaret Palmer January 18, 2010 Running time = 6:41