Sense Properties and Stereotype Imam Maulana : 20138100322 Jamar Sugianto : 20138100362 Dita Dwi Amanda : 20138100534

Definition of Sense Properties Sense properties can be defined as sense or kinds of meaning in the languages which contain some agreement in meaning of language in used. There are three important sense properties of sentence, namely an analytic, synthetic, and contradictory. Hurford et. al. (1983,p.94) state “the nation of analytic,synthetic, and contradictory are defines in terms of truth.” In case is thruth conditional of utterance.

Sense is important part in either in speaking or in writing because sense determines the meaning of the words or sentences depend on the context. The sense of expression is it indispensable hard core of meaning. So, sense is kind of meaning (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 1983)

Sense Properties and Stereotype Topics - Sense Properties 1. Analytical sentence 2. Synthetic sentence 3. Contradiction - Stereoype

Some Sense Properties of Sentence Analytic : An analytic sentence is one which is necessarily true, because of the senses of the words in it. Therefore, an analytic sentence can be judged true without recourse to real world knowledge separate from the sense of the words contained in it. An Examples : a. Elephants are animals b. Cats are not fish c. My brother is Male d. Pigeons are birds

B. Synthetic : A synthetic sentence is one which is not analytic or contradictory, but which may be true or false depending on the way the world. An example : a. My oldest cousin is Female b. My brother is tall c. Some cats eat wool d. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono is the president of Indonesia

C. Contradictory : A contradictory sentence (or a contradiction) is a sentence which is necessarily false, because of the senses of the words in the sentence. An examples : a. Elephants are not animals b. Cats are fish c. A man is butterfly d. Jelllyfish are plants

Definition of Stereotype A stereotype is an idea or belief many people have about a thing or group that is based upon how they look on the outside, which may be untrue or only partly true. Stereotyping people is a type of prejudice because what is on the outside is a small part of who a person is. Stereotypes might be used as reasons to discriminate against another person, or sometimes for a humorous effect in many television programmes. The term was invented in the late 18th century for a method of printing. In the middle 19th century it meant the faithful duplication of pictures. It got a psychological meaning in the 20th century.

In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thought or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality. However, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations and theories of stereotyping that provide their own expanded definition. Some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others.

The following are examples of stereotype assumptions In terms of race: Slanted eyes were Chinese Blacks are African The Arabs are terrorist White and Slacker are Americans The French have a high sense of art Africans are poor The Irish were drunken

In terms of Social Affairs: Goth/Emo is the one who wears the clothes, makeup and all black appearance, reflecting the behavior of defression and usually shunned society. Punk is a person who has a Mohawk or spike hair style, wearing tattered clothes and wearing chains, creating problems and hated by society In terms of Job: Bussinesman are people in suits, neat and always carry a briefcase or laptop The portesa were always portrayed as foolish man, but mighty

In terms of gender Beautiful women always liked the handsome men Men are always judging from the physical Men who are looking for a source of income, while women keep house A strong man is the athletic body

IDENTYTY & SIMILARYTY OF SENSE SENSE RELATION (1) IDENTYTY & SIMILARYTY OF SENSE

SENSE RELATION Sense Relation Sense Relation Whole Sentences The sense of an exprssion is the whole set of sense relation in contracts with other expressions in the language Sense Relation Whole Sentences Individual Predicates Sense Relation Sameness of Meaning Whole Sentences (Paraphrase) Individual Predicates (Synonymi)

SYNONYMI *Synonymi is the similaryty of meaning -> Vague definition Synonymy is the relation between two predicates that have the same sense Requires identity of sense -> strict definition -> very few examples Stubborn and obstinate are syninyms (in most dilects of English)

Synonymy & sense *stick to clear cases Interdependent-> .One can’t understand one without understanding the other best communicated by a range of examples when dealing with sense relations, *stick to clear cases *abstract away from any stylistic, social, or dialectal associations the word may have *concentrate on what has been called the cognitive or conceptual meaning of a word

OPPOSITENESS AND DISSIMILARITY OF SENSE AND AMBIGUITY SENSE RELATIONS 2 OPPOSITENESS AND DISSIMILARITY OF SENSE AND AMBIGUITY

{Oppositeness of Meaning} Individual Predicates Sense Relations {Oppositeness of Meaning} Individual Predicates {Antonymy} Whole Sentences {Contradictoriness}

Multiple Incompatibles (systems) Antonymy BINARY ANTONYMS CONVERSES Multiple Incompatibles (systems) GRADABLE ANTONYMY

Antonymy The traditional view of antonymy simply ‘oppositeness of meaning’ not adequate Some words may be opposite in meaning indifferent ways Some words have no real opposites E.g. Thick is not the opposite of thin in the same way as dead is the opposite of alive 4. basic types of antonymy (or semantic incompatibility).

Also Called Complementarity BINARY ANTONYMS Also Called Complementarity BINARY ANTONYMS are predicates which come in pairs and between them exhaust all the relevant possibilities. If the one predicate is applicable, then the other cannot be, and vice versa. Another way to view this is to say that a predicate is a binary antonym of another predicate if it entails the negative of the other predicate. E.g. true and false are binary antonyms. If a sentence is true, it cannot be false. If it is false, it cannot be true. Alternatively, if something is true, this entails that it is not false. If it is false, this entails it is not true.

BINARY ANTONYMY The natural way to pair off pairs of antonyms → is a long the same dimension man vs woman → (along the male/female dimension) A four-way contrast (not natural) → two different binary antonyms combine in a set of predicates → more complicated systems of contrast man vs girl →(cutting across both dimensions)

CONVERSES If a predicate describes a relationship between two things (or people) and some other predicate describes the same relationship when the two things (or people)are mentioned in the opposite order, then the two predicates are CONVERSES of each other. E.g. Parent and child are converses, because X is the parent of Y (one order) describes the same situation (relationship) as Y is the child of X (opposite order).

a) All the terms in a given system are mutually incompatible Multiple Incompatibles(systems) a) All the terms in a given system are mutually incompatible ↘e.g. a playing card cannot belong to both the hearts suit and the spades suit a) All the terms in a given system are mutually incompatible ↘e.g. a playing card cannot belong to both the hearts suit and the spades suit b) together, the members of a system cover all the relevant area. ↘e.g. And besides hearts, clubs, diamonds, and spades there are no other suits. b) together, the members of a system cover all the relevant area. ↘e.g. And besides hearts, clubs, diamonds, and spades there are no other suits. There are large numbers of, open-ended systems of multiple incompatibility.

GRADABLE ANTONYMY Hot warm Cool Tepid cold Two predicates are GRADABLE antonyms if they are at opposite ends of a continuous scale of values (a scale which typically varies according tothe context of use). E.g. Hot and cold are gradable antonyms. Between hot and cold is a continuous scale of values, which may be given names such as warm, cool, or tepid. What is called hot in one context (e.g. of oven temperatures in a recipe book) could well be classed as cold in another context (e.g. the temperatures of stars). Gradability test: → Check whether a word can combine with (very, or very much, or how? or how much?) E.g. →How tall is he? Is acceptable →How top is that shelf? is not acceptable. Hot warm Cool Tepid cold

CONTRADICTORINESS

Contradictoriness A proposition is a CONTRADICTORY of another proposition if it is impossible for them both to be true at the same time and of the samecircumstances The definition can naturally be extended to sentences thus: a sentence expressing one proposition is a contradictory of a sentence expressing another proposition if it is impossible for both propositions to be true at the same time and of the same circumstances. Alternatively (and equivalently) a sentence contradicts another sentence if it entails the negation of the other sentence. e.g. This beetle is alive is a contradictory of This beetle is dead.

Ambiguity Describing and explaining ambiguities in words and in sentences → is one of the goals of a semantic theory. A word or sentence is AMBIGUOUS when it has more than one sense. A sentence is ambiguous if it has two (or more) paraphrases which are not them selves paraphrases of each other. e.g. We saw her duck is a paraphrase of We saw her lower her head and of We saw the duck belonging to her, and these last two sentences are not paraphrases of each other. Therefore We saw her duck is ambiguous.

Ambiguity Defining ‘sentence 1- A sentence is a particular string of words associated with one particular sense →a sentence cannot be ambiguous Some semanticists E.g. The chicken is ready to eat → represents two different sentences 2- We adopt a usage that has been current inrecent Linguistic E.g The chicken is ready to eat →is a single ambiguous sentence This is essentially a matter of terminology.

Ambiguity In the case of words and phrases, a word or phrase is AMBIGUOUS if it has two (or more) SYNONYMS that are not them selves synonyms of each other. e.g. Trunk is synonymous with elephant’s proboscis and with chest, but these two are not synonyms of each other, so trunk is ambiguous. Similarly coach is synonymous with trainer and with charabanc (or bus) but these two are not synonyms of each other, so coach is ambiguous.

(the closeness, or relatedness, of the senses of the ambiguous words) Homonymy (different senses) Polysemy (closely relatedsenses)

HOMONYMY A case of HOMONYMY is one of an ambiguous word whose different senses are far apart from each other and not obviously related to each other in any way with respect to a native speaker’s intuition. Mug (drinking vessel vs gullible person) Bank (financial institution vs the side of a river or stream) Homonymy seem very definitely to be matters of mere accident or coincidence → There is no obvious conceptual connection between the two meanings of either word

POLYSEMY A case of POLYSEMY is one where a word has several very closely related senses. → In otherwords, a native speaker of the language has clear intuitions that the different senses are related toeach other in some way E,g. guard (person who guards, sentinel vs solid protective shield, e.g. Around machinery) Explanation: Both contain the concept of protection against danger.

Homonymy & Polysemy Polysemy is much more common in human language → most words have related variations in sense that depend on the particular linguistic context in which they are used. It is nearly impossible to draw a clear line between homonymy and polysemy → they occupy places along a graded continuum of meaning homonymy polysemy vagueness

Homonymy EXAMPLE E.g. Grass has two senses which are indicated by the following environments: (a) Please keep off the grass. (b) The informer grassed on his partners-in-crime. It is not always possible to find an exactly synonymous phrase for a given word → yet it is possible to indicate different senses of a word by giving different environments in which the word may be used

Homonymy In many cases, a word used in one sense belongs to one part of speech, and used in another sense, it belongs to a different part of speech. E.g. long In the sense of yearn → a verb In the sense of not short → an adjective

Structurally (Grammatically Ambiguous ) Sentence Ambiguity Structurally (Grammatically Ambiguous ) Lexical Ambiguity

STRUCTURALLY (or GRAMMATICALLY) AMBIGUOUS A sentence which is ambiguous because its words relate to each other in different ways, even though none of the individual words are ambiguous, is STRUCTURALLY (or GRAMMATICALLY) AMBIGUOUS. E.g. The chicken is ready to eat a question of ‘what goes with what’ in a sentence can be shown by using constituency diagrams square brackets around the relevant parts of the sentence (or phrase). e.g. The phrase old men and women is structurally ambiguous. It is synonymous with women and old men and with old men and old women. We represent these two senses with square brackets thus: (1) [old men] and women old [men and women] The first diagram indicates that old modifies only men, and the second

LEXICAL AMBIGUITY Any ambiguity resulting from the ambiguity of a word is a LEXICAL AMBIGUITY. E.g. The captain corrected the list