Strategies of Resistance and Self-Determination Historical and contemporary de-colonization strategies of American Indian Tribal Nations Prepared by Professor Alan Parker

Early Colonial Period: 1492 - 1787 - Surviving the Onslaught Contact with European explorers led to epidemics that devastated the native population: 80% died. The Royal Proclamation of England’s King George in 1763 the building block for relations with Indian nations. The Proclamation reserved to the Crown treaty making, trading rights with the Indian nations. The strategy of native people was to resist occupation by war and treaty-making.

Relations between US and Indian Nations: Nations within a Nation After the American Revolution, the US Constitution (1787) reserved to Congress authority to regulate commerce and make treaties with the Indian nations. The Supreme Court: Indian nations “domestic” sovereigns, independent from the states. (Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 1831) Treaties reserve homelands and open vast areas for homesteading.

Colonization Policies of the US The US Govt. policy = “forced assimilation.” Tribal lands “allotted” to farm or ranch, then open to “white settlers”. To Christianize is to civilize. Capitalism and individualism official policy vs. tribalism. “Indian Wars” were fought to overcome native resistance.

From the 19th to the 20th Century: a strategy of survival By end of the Indian wars the native population was reduced from 25 million to 250,000. Allotment legalized taking of 100 million acres of lands that had been reserved in treaties. The colonial system led to 200 Indian reservations. Puppet tribal councils installed and BIA controlled Indian life. Thousand of Indian children were taken from their families and put into boarding schools.

US Colonization policy leads to “termination” of tribal rights. After WWII, Congress enacted Termination policy: “Get the government out of the Indian business”. “Termination”, ultimate threat to Indian legal and political rights, galvanized tribal leaders and the modern era of Indian activism was born in the 1950’s.

The Beginning of Indian Self-determination 1944-the National Congress of American Indians created -- the first political body organized to represent tribes from across US. The 1961 American Indian Chicago Conference: Indian leaders began a national movement to protect treaty rights, to establish self-determination, and to build self-sufficient economies on the reservations. In the 1960’s, the Civil Rights Movement encouraged Indian leaders to use civil protest strategies. Tribes in NW lead the fight in federal court to re-affirm Indian treaties (US v Washington; victory in 1974.)

Resistance strategy becomes self-determination strategy Indian leaders push Congress to enact the “Indian Self-determination Act” in 1975. Tribal governments began to use Self-Determination Act to take control of reservations from the BIA. 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act - Tribal courts can now intervene in state courts to keep custody of Indian children in Indian homes.

Indian gains of 1980’s are turning point in de-colonization The American Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978) recognizes right of native religions to the same protections as Euro-American religions. Tribal Colleges created as tribal leaders extend their efforts beyond K-12. Right to engage in Indian Gaming protected in 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act. The Smithsonian creates National Indian Museum in 1989.

Moving forward into the future Economic sustainability strategy: tribal gaming grows from bingo to $28 billion industry in 2016. Leads to a new “Indian Country Economy” Tribal participation in American politics: tribes contribute millions in the 2002, 04 and 08 elections: invest in government-to-government relations. Cultural revitalization, economic sustainability, and new political power—a path to total de-colonization.

Nations within a Nation: A new paradigm American Indian tribal nations look beyond a US Policy agenda and study the experiences of Indigenous Peoples across the globe. The NCAI proposes an International Treaty of Indigenous Nations and a United League of Indigenous Nations Treaty adopted in 2007 Indigenous Nations creating international political and economic alliances: with other indigenous people; with the United Nations and the UN Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007)