Border, Boundary and Frontier: Concepts Chapter 1 Border, Boundary and Frontier: Concepts

Contents 1.1 Some basic concepts 1.4 Borders: dimension and structure 1.1.1 Traditional definitions 1.1.2 An extended definition 1.2 A world of borders 1.2.1 Artificial barriers 1.2.2 Geometrical lines 1.2.3 Invisible borders 1.3 Borders: political hierarchy 1.3.1 Independent-country level 1.3.2 Internally independent political-entity level 1.3.3 Dependent political-entity level 1.3.4 Other political-unit levels 1.4 Borders: dimension and structure 1.4.1 Spatial dimension 1.4.2 Convex and concave borders 1.4.3 Enclave and exclave borders Case 1. Who owns the South China Sea?

Defining a border “the line that separates one country, state, province, etc., from another” (WUD, 2013) “the dividing line or frontier between political or geographic regions” (CED, 2009) “the line or frontier area separating political divisions or geographic regions” (AHD, 2009) “a line separating two countries, administrative divisions, or other areas” (OD, 2014) “a line separating one country or state from another” or “a boundary between places” (MWUD, 2014) “the official line separating two countries or states” (MD, 2013) Abbreviations: WUD=Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, CED=Collins English Dictionary, AHD=American Heritage Dictionary, OD=Oxford Dictionary, MWUD=Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary, and MD=Macmillan Dictionary

Forms of governments and ruling powers: Republic Constitutional monarchy Parliamentary state Provisional military government Socialist republic Federal republic Monarchy Federal parliamentary state Islamic republic Transitional military republic Federal Islamic republic Transitional government Federal constitutional monarchy Federation of monarchy Monarchical–sacerdotal state Constitutional monarchy under military rule

Borders with different spatial dimensions: 2-d border. Borders of this kind encompass the majority of borders around the world, including the U.S.–Mexican that runs for 3220 km from East to West and the military demarcation line (MDL) that divides North and South Korea around the 38th Parallel. 3-d border. It is also called a “tri-border”. This kind of border can be found in the Tumen river delta where China, Russia and North Korea meet, in Lake Nyas is shared by Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi in southeast Africa, in Lake Victoria between Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. 4-d border. It is also called a “quadri-border”. This kind of border can be found in Lake Chad between Chad, Cameroon, Nigeria and Niger in West Africa, and in Lake Michigan separating four states of Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana in the USA. …

Notes to Fig. 1.4 Country A (red): Country B (yellow): possesses 3 exclaves (A1, A2 and A3): it is impossible to go from the main part of A to any of these parts going only through territory of A; however: A1 and A2 are not enclaves: neither of them is surrounded by a single "foreign" territory; A3 is an enclave: it is totally surrounded by B; contains 1 enclave (E): "foreign" territory totally surrounded by territory of A; possesses 2 counter-enclaves or 2-order enclaves (A4 and A5): territories belonging to A which are encroached inside the enclave E; contains 1 counter-counter-enclave or 3-order enclave (E1). Country B (yellow): contains 2 enclaves (A3 and D). Country C (green): continuous territory. Country D (orange): is an enclavated country: it is territorially continuous, but its territory is totally surrounded by a single "foreign" territory (B). Country E (purple): is an enclavated country: it is encroached inside A; contains 2 enclaves (A4 and A5), which are counter-enclaves or 2-order enclaves of A; and possesses 1 counter-enclave (E1), which is a counter-counter-enclave or 3-order enclave as viewed by A and contained within A5.