CHAPTER 12 MOTIVATION

Lecture outline Nature of motivation Needs theories Cognitive theories Reinforcement theory Social learning theory

Nature of motivation Motivation is the force energising or, giving direction to, behaviour, and underlies the tendency to persist. It is a complex interaction of behaviours, needs, rewards/reinforcement and cognitive activities.

Nature of motivation x X environmental performance ability motivation conditions ability motivation x X =

Needs theories Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow) Two-factor theory (Herzberg) ERG theory (Aldefer) Acquired needs theory (McClelland)

Needs theories Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow): Theory arguing that individual needs form a five-level hierarchy.

Needs theories Self-actualisation Esteem Belongingness Safety Physiological

Needs theories ERG theory (Aldefer) Alternative to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, which argues that there are three levels of individual needs.

Needs theories Relatedness needs Relationships with family, work and professional groups Existence needs Physiological (food, water) Pay Benefits Working conditions Satisfaction-progression principle Frustration-regression Growth needs Creativity Innovation Productivity

Needs theories Two-factor theory (Herzberg) Herzberg’s theory that hygiene factors are necessary to keep workers from feeling dissatisfied but, only motivators can lead workers to feel satisfied and motivated.

Hygiene factors Motivators Factors that prevents you from being dissatisfied Motivators Factors seeming to make individuals feel satisfied with their jobs (enhances motivation)

Needs theories Hygiene factors Motivators Achievement Responsibility Pay Working Conditions Supervisors Company Policies Fringe benefits Achievement Responsibility Work itself Recognition Growth Advancement

Needs theories Acquired needs theory (McClelland) Theory stating that an individual`s needs are acquired over time and are shaped by his/ her life experiences. McClelland further states that most of these needs can be classed into one of the three categories which are: Achievement, Affiliation and Power

Developed by David McClelland (1961) NEEDS THEORIES Acquired needs theory Developed by David McClelland (1961) Cites the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation as major motives in work Need for achievement—drive to excel Need for power—influence others’ behaviour Need for affiliation—desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships Need for achievement (nAch): desire to accomplish challenging tasks, achieve excellence, compete. Need for power (nPow): desire for personal and institutional power - to influence others and control the environment. Need for affiliation (nAff): desire for warm and friendly relationships with others. McClelland developed a measure for these needs which he called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in which volunteers are asked to develop stories based on a selection of deliberately ambiguous pictures. From the subjects’ stories, McClelland would score the mix of achievement, power and affiliation themes. Some textbooks and websites have examples of the kinds of pictures used. McClelland also analysed the various needs in relation to managerial effectiveness, and thought that people could be trained to improve or raise their need for achievement. Pages 449-451. The four needs theories covered in this Chapter have a range of similarities and point to higer-level needs as important for motivation. A table comparing the needs theories is at Page 452 (Figure 12.5).

Achievement – people with high need for achievement seek to excel and thus tend to avoid risk situations. (Nach) Affiliation – People with high need for harmonious relationships with other always work to be accepted by others. People with high Naff tend to work at places that provides significant personal interaction. Power – Need to influence other and control one`s environment. Power can be divided into two categories.

2 Types of Power Personal Power – need for power in which people want to control others. This may be because of the sake of demonstrating their ability or authority. Institutional Power – need for power in which people focus on working with others in order to enhance and move the organizational goals forward.

Personal Power ????????

Which Power???? TEETH POWER

Cognitive theories Expectancy theory Equity theory Goal-setting theory

Cognitive theories Expectancy theory (Vroom) Theory arguing that we consider three main issues (effort-performance, performance-outcome, valence) before we expend effort necessary to perform at a given level.

Cognitive theories Effort-performance expectancy Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required level of performance. Performance-outcome expectancy Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to desired outcomes. Valence Our assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or rewards. – value of outcomes

Ratio of inputs = Ratio of outputs Cognitive theories Equity theory (Adams) Theory arguing that we prefer situations of balance or, equity. Ratio of inputs = Ratio of outputs “Others” If the ratio of inputs to outputs is less beneficial than the ratio enjoyed by referent others, then we become de-motivated in relation to our job and employer.

Cognitive theories Goal-setting theory Goal-setting theory [technique] works by focussing attention & action, mobilising effort, increasing persistence, & encouraging the development of strategy to achieve goals.

Reinforcement theory Theory arguing that our behaviour can be explained by consequences in the environment.

Types of reinforcement: Positive Technique aiming to increase a desired behaviour through positive things--Uses pleasant, rewarding consequences to encourage desired behaviour. Use of shaping. Negative (unpleasant) stimuli so an individual will engage in the desired behaviour to stop the stimuli. Doing something in order to avoid negative

Types of reinforcement: Extinction Stopping previously available positive outcomes from a behaviour to decrease the behaviour. Punishment Providing negative consequences to decrease or discourage a behaviour.

Reinforcement theory Using reinforcement theory: Fixed ratio: given after fixed number of cases of desired behaviour. High response rates, rapid extinguishment if stopped even temporarily. Eg: on every five successful ideas implemented Fixed interval: given on fixed time schedule. Uneven responses, extinction rapid if reinforcement late, or stops Eg: Visiting at the same time Using reinforcement theory: encourage desired behaviour, be clear on what is desired. Use variable interval & variable ratio reinforcement. Punish moderately severely & promptly. Variable interval: given on variable or random time basis. High, steady response rate, slow extinguishment, if stopped Eg: On an average Variable ratio: given on variable or random frequency of behaviour basis. High response rate, very slow extinguishment Eg: one award per five successful ideas. And so on

Social Learning Theory "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." -Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

Social learning theory Social learning theory (Bandura) Theory arguing that learning occurs through continuous reciprocal interaction of our behaviours, various personal factors and environmental forces.

Social learning theory Symbolic processes Self-control/regulation---Intrinsic Reinforcement Vicarious learning.

Lecture summary Nature of motivation Needs theories Motivational process Motivation & performance. Needs theories Hierarchy of needs Two-factor ERG Acquired needs.

Lecture summary Cognitive theories Reinforcement theory Expectancy Equity Goal-setting. Reinforcement theory Positive, negative, extinction, punishment as reinforcement. Social learning theory Symbolic processes, self-control, vicarious learning.