+ I V V R (Ω) - R + V - V R (Ω) ref(erence) = 0V = ground DC th th VΩ com A DVM Variable Resistor R Resistance- Controlled Voltage th Voltage Divider + Voltage and current are the fundamental elements of electricity. This card represents voltage sources that are constant, that output current that is also constant. We call these ‘direct current’ or DC sources. DC means the voltage (or current) is constant. A battery is a good example of this kind of voltage. Voltages have positive (+) and negative (-) polarities, shown here. The current also has a polarity, shown by the direction of the arrow. The arrow always comes OUT of the positive terminal of the battery. The TAIL of the current is (-) and the arrowhead of the current is (+). Note that there cards are set up so the black border indicates the side you would see physically. The sides with the red border indicate what you would see in a circuit diagram. There are two common ways of showing VDC in a circuit diagram, for instance. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING is all about ‘What can you do to a voltage (or current)?’ V - V + Vs - th A Vout= Vs / A Thevenin Equivalent R (Ω)

+ I + - V V - R (Ω) I=Vth/Rth R1 R R2 R (Ω) DC ref(erence) = 0V = ground + - VΩ com A DVM R (Ω) I Variable Resistor DC + - V DC R (Ω) I=Vth/Rth Sensor Bridge R1 R+ΔR Voltage and current are the fundamental elements of electricity. This card represents voltage sources that are constant, that output current that is also constant. We call these ‘direct current’ or DC sources. DC means the voltage (or current) is constant. A battery is a good example of this kind of voltage. Voltages have positive (+) and negative (-) polarities, shown here. The current also has a polarity, shown by the direction of the arrow. The arrow always comes OUT of the positive terminal of the battery. The TAIL of the current is (-) and the arrowhead of the current is (+). Note that there cards are set up so the black border indicates the side you would see physically. The sides with the red border indicate what you would see in a circuit diagram. There are two common ways of showing VDC in a circuit diagram, for instance. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING is all about ‘What can you do to a voltage (or current)?’ R + Vs - th V2= VsR2 R1+R2 R2 Norton Equivalent 𝑉𝑜 ≈ 𝑉𝑜 4 ∆𝑅 𝑅 Voltage Divider

AA=1 1 AA A-A 1 V Vcc -Vcc V =AV V = -AV V =V V1 V2 V V1 V2 V1 V2 X X p 1 n Vcc -Vcc Voltage Controlled Switch V in out =AV AA V in out = -AV A-A Inverting Amplifier X V in out =V AA=1 Unity Gain /Buffer Amplifier X Non-Inverting Amplifier X V1 Vo=AV1+BV2 V2 Non-Inverting Summer X A B + V p 1 n Voltage Controlled Switch V1 Vo=-AV1-BV2 V2 Inverting Summer X -A -B + V1 Vo=AV1-BV2 V2 Differencing Amp X A -B + Voltage and current are the fundamental elements of electricity. This card represents voltage sources that are constant, that output current that is also constant. We call these ‘direct current’ or DC sources. DC means the voltage (or current) is constant. A battery is a good example of this kind of voltage. Voltages have positive (+) and negative (-) polarities, shown here. The current also has a polarity, shown by the direction of the arrow. The arrow always comes OUT of the positive terminal of the battery. The TAIL of the current is (-) and the arrowhead of the current is (+). Note that there cards are set up so the black border indicates the side you would see physically. The sides with the red border indicate what you would see in a circuit diagram. There are two common ways of showing VDC in a circuit diagram, for instance. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING is all about ‘What can you do to a voltage (or current)?’

Non-Inverting Amplifier Vo = Vs Vo = Vs (-Rf/Rs) Vo= Vs (R1+R2)/R2 Inverting Amplifier Buffer (Unity Gain) Non-Inverting Amplifier (On) (Off) 0 (Off) Differential Amp Inverting Summer Non-Inverting Summer

Example: Resistive Sensor System All rights reserved. Do not copy or distribute. © 2013 National Technology and Science Press Circuits, Second Edition by Fawwaz T. Ulaby and Michel M. Maharbiz, © NTS Press, Used with Permission by the Publisher

Example: Averaging Circuit Problem 4.27 Circuits, Second Edition by Fawwaz T. Ulaby and Michel M. Maharbiz, © NTS Press, Used with Permission by the Publisher All rights reserved. Do not copy or distribute. © 2013 National Technology and Science Press

Example: Linear Voltage Combination Vo2 = 3V1 + 4V2 -5V3 – 8V4 All rights reserved. Do not copy or distribute. © 2013 National Technology and Science Press Circuits, Second Edition by Fawwaz T. Ulaby and Michel M. Maharbiz, © NTS Press, Used with Permission by the Publisher