Chapter 5 Motivation Content Theories 1

Motivation Defined Implications: Psychological processes that cause the arousal direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed. Implications: Behaviour is purposive rather than random - People exhibit both positive (work done on time) and negative (arrive late for work) behavior for a reason Motivation arouses people to do something - People are unlikely to change a behavior or do something different unless they are motivated to do so Motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal Motivation fuels the persistence needed to exhibit sustained effort on a task

Determinants of Work Performance

Each theory is based on a different perspective or set of assumptions. Historical Roots Each theory is based on a different perspective or set of assumptions. Need theories are based on the premise that people are motivated by unmet or unsatisfied needs. We want what we don’t have. Reinforcement theories are based on the idea that behavior is controlled by its consequences, not by internal states such as instincts, needs, emotions or attitudes.

Historical Roots Cognitive theories are based on the assumption that behavior is a function of beliefs, expectations, values, and other mental cognitions. Job characteristics models of motivation are based on the notion that motivation is influenced by the type of tasks a person completes at work. Motivation is proposed to be a function of an individual’s feelings and emotions according to theories of feelings/emotions.

Content or process motivation theories Content theories of motivation: theories regarding what motivates people Process theories of motivation: theories regarding how people get motivated

Content or process motivation theories Theoretical classification Main theories Content theories: address the question what motivates Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model Alderfer’s modified need hierarchy model Herzberg’s two factor theory McGregor’s Theory X and Y McClelland’s motivation theory

Content or process motivation theories Theoretical classification Main theories Process theories: address the question of how people get motivated Expectancy theory of choices Equity theory Goal setting theory

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Fulfilling the five needs at work Physiological needs Provide lunch breaks, rest breaks and wages that are sufficient to purchase the essentials of life Safety needs Provide a safe work environment and relative job security Love needs Create a feeling of acceptance, belonging, and community by reinforcing team dynamics Esteem needs Recognise achievements, assign importan projects and provide status to make employees feel appreciated and valued. Self- actualisation needs Provide a challenging and meaningful work which enables innovation, creativity, and progress according to the long term.

Objections to using Maslow Employees do not always need to satisfy their needs through their work. It is possible that the higher level needs are satisfied through other life domains such as leisure. There is no conclusive evidence about how much time passes between the satisfaction of a lower-level need and the progress to a higher-order need. People value the same needs differently. Maslow's theory, however, is a universalistic theory which applies to everyone. As a result this theory cannot explain differences between people and between cultures.

More objections to Maslow Identical rewards may satisfy different needs. For instance, a high wage may satisfy the safety need and esteem need, because a high wage can be assessed as an important indicator for appraisal and recognition at work. Satisfaction in Maslow's theory is considered as the major motivational outcome of behaviour. However, job satisfaction does not necessarily improve work performance. For employees with the same needs (same level in hierarchy), the motivational factors will be different because there are many diverse ways in which people may pursue satisfaction.

Alderfer’s ERG-theory Existence needs = Maslow’s safety and psychological needs =basic material existence requirements Relatedness needs =Maslow’s social and external esteem needs =the need to maintain significant relations Growth needs = Maslow’s self-esteem and self-acualisation needs = intrinsic desire for personal development

Alderfer’s ERG-theory Differences with Maslow’s theory: More than one need can occur simultaneously Frustration-regression analysis: if the gratification of a higher-order need is being blocked, the desire to satisfy a lower need increases Progression down the hierarchy is also possible

McClelland’s Need Theory . Need For Achievement: Desiring to excel and to accomplish something difficult, achievement-motivated people prefer: tasks of moderate ability situations in which their performance is due to their own efforts more feedback on their success and failures than do low achievers Need For Affiliation: Desire to spend time in social relationships and activities. Need For Power: Desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve.

Herzberg’s Motivating Factors No Satisfaction Jobs that do not offer achievement recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. Satisfaction Jobs offering achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. Motivating factors

Herzberg’s Hygiene Factors Dissatisfaction Jobs with poor company policies and administration,technical supervision,salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions. No Dissatisfaction Jobs with good company policies, and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions. . Hygiene Factors

Herzberg vs. need theories Maslow Alderfer McClelland Motivators Self- actualisation Growth Achievement Esteem Power Hygiene factors Love Relatedness Affiliation Safety Existence Psychological

General conclusions People to seek security. Consequently, employers cannot neglect the security aspect in organisations People seek social connections. Whether a need for relatedness, a need for affiliation or belongingness, this aspect is an important component of effective organisations People seek personal growth. Whether we call it advancement, self-actualisation, need for achievement or growth, this self-development aspect is an important element of effective [and learning] organisations.

The Job Characteristics Model

Motivating Potential of a Job Skill Task Task Variety + Identity + Significance MPS = X Autonomy X Feedback 3

Actions for applying job enrichment

Steps and guidelines towards job enrichment Check scores in the areas of motivation and satisfaction to see if problems exist in these areas. If they do, and the job outcomes are deficient, then job enrichment may well be called for. Guide 1: Diagnose the work system in terms of some theory of work redesign before introducing any change to see what is possible and what kinds of changes are most likely to work. Step 2: Check the motivating potential scores of the jobs to see if they are low. If they are not, job enrichment is not likely to be the answer. Guide 2: Keep the focus of the change effort on the work itself, rather than the other aspects of the work context, so that real job enrichment does occur

Steps and guidelines towards job enrichment Check scores for the five core dimensions to see what the basic strengths and weaknesses of the present job are. In this way it is possible to identify specific areas for change. Guide 3: Prepare in advance for any possible problems and side effects, especially among employees whose jobs are not directly affected by the change; develop appropriate contingency plans. Step 4: Check to see what the growth need strength levels of job incumbents are. One can proceed with more confidence in enriching the jobs of employees with high growth needs since they are ready for the change. Guide 4: Evaluate the project on a continuing basis to see if anticipated changes actually are occurring and using as many and as objective measures as possible.

Steps and guidelines towards job enrichment Check the scores for various aspects of job satisfaction and other information sources for roadblocks that might obstruct change or for special opportunities that might facilitate it. Guide 5: Confront difficult problems as early in the project as possible. Guide 6: Design change processes in such a way as to fit the objectives of the job enrichment. Thus if autonomy in work is to be an objective, autonomy should be respected in designing the new jobs in the first place, in other words, be consistent with the theory in guiding the change effort throughout.

Guidelines for job enrichment Combining tasks. Give employees more than one part of the work in order to increase skill variety and task identity Forming natural work units in order to increase task identity and task significance Establishing client relationships in order to increase skill variety, autonomy and feedback Implementing Herzberg’s vertical loading principles (see above) in order to increase autonomy Opening feedback channels in order to increase feedback Remember: Not all people desire more complex jobs