Chapter 12 Motivation Psychology Applied to Work®

Learning Objectives Explain five critical concepts central to work motivation. Understand the conceptual basis and degree of empirical support for these work motivation theories: biological-based, flow, self-determination, expectancy, equity, goal-setting, self-regulation, and work design. Provide an overview and synthesis of the work motivation theories. Understand the ways in which time impacts work motivation. Give practical examples of applying motivational strategies. Psychology Applied to Work®

Overview of Motivation Three components: Direction Intensity Persistence Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation Maximum vs. typical performance Psychology Applied to Work®

Five Critical Concepts Behavior (action) Performance (some evaluation/appraisal of the behavior) Ability (first determinant of behavior: relatively stable: what you can do) Situational factors (second determinant: what you are allowed to do) Motivation (the third determinant of behavior: what you will do) Psychology Applied to Work®

Work Motivation Theories Biological-based theory Flow theory Self-determination theory Expectancy theory Equity theory Goal setting theory Self-regulation theories Work design theory Psychology Applied to Work®

Biological-based Theory Examines the role physiological responses and inherited traits in motivation The gene D4DR, dopamine, and motivational chemistry Conscientiousness: the will to achieve Psychology Applied to Work®

Flow Theory Intrinsic motivation on steroids - being "in the zone" 3 preconditions challenge-skill balance clear goals clear and immediate feedback Some individuals are more prone to flow than others Work-related flow related to benefits at work and at home Psychology Applied to Work®

Flow Theory (cont’d) Psychology Applied to Work®

Self-Determination Theory Three basic needs necessary for intrinsic motivation: autonomy competence relatedness Undermining effect - belief/finding that extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic motivation occurs when extrinsic rewards undermine one or more of the basic needs Psychology Applied to Work®

Self-Determination Theory (cont’d) Importance of linking extrinsic motivations to values Key meta-analytic findings Intrinsic motivation related to quality of performance; extrinsic related to quantity Intrinsic motivation and performance less related when incentives directly (vs. indirectly) tied to performance Psychology Applied to Work®

Expectancy Theory Cognitive theory that suggests motivation is a function of employee beliefs that: effort will lead to performance (expectancy) performance will lead to an outcome (instrumentality) the outcome is valued (valence) Psychology Applied to Work®

Equity Theory Motivation is social in nature Individuals make comparisons between themselves and others to determine how hard to work Comparison of a ratio of their inputs and outcomes with those of others When ratio is equal, there is equity When ratio is not equal, there is inequity Psychology Applied to Work®

Equity Theory (cont’d) Psychology Applied to Work®

Equity Theory (cont’d) The basis for organizational justice perceptions Comparisons may vary self vs. other comparisons internal vs. external comparisons comparisons with actual people vs. thoughts Psychology Applied to Work®

Equity Theory (cont’d) Feelings of inequity motivate individuals to take action by: reducing inputs, increasing outcomes, distorting their perceptions, changing the comparison person, or leaving the situation Psychology Applied to Work®

Equity Theory (cont’d) Equity sensitivity - individual difference for preference/tolerance for equity/inequity benevolents entitleds equity sensitives Psychology Applied to Work®

Goal-setting Theory Motivation influenced by directing efforts toward established goals Goals influence direction, intensity, and persistence, and influence development of novel task strategies Goal content learning goals performance goals Tendency to approach goals in certain ways: goal orientation Psychology Applied to Work®

Goal-setting Theory (cont’d) Goals lead to greater performance when: they are specific (vs. vague) they are difficult (vs. easy) they are attainable (vs. unattainable) individuals are committed to the goals goal seen as attainable goal attainment is important self-set or participatively-set (vs. assigned) public (vs. private) tasks are simple (vs. complex) tasks are independent (vs. interdependent) feedback is provided (vs. not provided) Psychology Applied to Work®

Goal-setting Theory (cont’d) Evidence that goal setting is effective for groups and highly generalizable Potential harmful effects (e.g., if goals are too difficult) Psychology Applied to Work®

Self-regulation Theories Family of theories with the core concept of goals People consciously set goals People self-monitor Use feedback for information about progress and being on target Feedback yields discrepancies between current status / needed status for gain of rewards If error message, individual responds and revises goals Self-efficacy increases with success Psychology Applied to Work®

Self-regulation Theories (cont’d) General pattern of results is very positive Research provides rich conceptual basis to understanding how individuals become motivated to pursue a goal, and why they persevere Self-efficacy adds utility to some of the other theories explains how cognitive processes become activated in behavior; e.g., that people: Form intentions Set goals and anticipate outcomes Adapt personal standards and monitor, regulate actions Reflect and correct Psychology Applied to Work®

Work Design Theory Proper design of job facilitates motivation This process is called job enrichment There are critical core job dimensions: Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback Psychology Applied to Work®

Work Design Theory (cont’d) Jobs high on core dimensions – associated with high motivation Value of core job attributes embodied in concept of job crafting Evidence for multiple job characteristics Most useful for manufacturing as opposed to knowledge-based organizations Psychology Applied to Work®

Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories Each theory provides understanding of how direction, intensity, and persistence are impacted Theories can be organized along continuum of conceptual proximity to action Proximal - directly influence behavior Distal - indirectly influence behavior As closer to proximal, motivation elevated to cognitive explanations Most proximal (work design theory) relies primarily on the characteristics of the work environment as source of motivation Psychology Applied to Work®

Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories Psychology Applied to Work®

The Impact of Time on Work Motivation Deadlines - often included with goals but can lead to risk taking and impair creativity Procrastination - self-regulatory failure Distal outcomes often discounted More likely with heavy workloads Psychology Applied to Work®

The Impact of Time on Work Motivation (cont’d) Planning fallacy - tendency to underestimate how long a task will take more related to when people start an activity than when they finish it Suggestions: unpack tasks and take third-person perspective Psychology Applied to Work®

The Application of Motivational Strategies Three major determinants of behavior: ability, motivation, situational factors (including constraints) Most obvious beginning in problem analysis is remove constraints (obstacles that limit range of behavior) Next step is to examine skill and ability factors Last step is to examine dimensions/strategies of motivation: Direction (energies channeled in creative directions) Intensity (higher energy – trying harder Persistence (sustained effort over time) Pacing and spacing of motivation across different goals/activities Psychology Applied to Work®