Module 21 - Information Processing Part 2 The Phenomenon of Memory

Memory: Persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information We Encode: process information into the memory system by extracting meaning Store: retain encoded information over time Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory Retrieve: access information in the memory External events  sensory memory  short term/working memory  long term memory Automatic or effortful encoding into working memory Effects of timing of rehearsals Primacy and recency effect The effect of imagery The effect of mnemonic devices Chunking and hierarchies

Review: Working or Short Term Memory A small fraction of sensory information receives attention and effortful encoding STM is limited in duration (a few seconds) STM is limited in capacity (about 7 bits of information and a few seconds of duration) Better echoic (auditory) than iconic (visual) Working memory interacts with long-term memory Unless we meaningfully encode or rehearse that information – it can disappear quickly

?Today’s interesting questions? When we learn new things, do we forget some of the old things “to make room”? Can we have a “memory pill” to help us remember better? No matter what they say about “timing of rehearsals,” do you feel that just before an exam, when you are stressed out, you learn much better? What were you doing when you heard about 9/11 WTC explosions? Why can’t you remember things that happened before the age of 3? Did you ever have the sense that you have “lived this moment before” ?

Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage system of skills, knowledge, experiences Essentially limitless Storage of information in LTM can be learned http://web.aanet.com.au/memorysports/disciplines.php

How do we store memories? Memory is constructive we don’t record information like a videotape each time we remember, we reconstruct the memory There is a biological basis for memory: memory (or neural) trace Neural change occurs in the synapses: experience modifies brain’s neural network

How do we form “neural traces”? “Long term potentiation” (LTP) is the neural basis for learning Increased activity in a particular neural pathway  strengthening neural interconnections Serotonin is released for activating learning Sensitivity of the synapse increases  less serotonin activates the receiving neuron  receiving neuron may have more receptor sites Once LTP has occurred, memory cannot be erased by trauma California sea slug – study of Kandel and Schwartz  large neurons with only 20K of them

Stress hormones and memory Strong emotions make for stronger memories Some stress hormones boost learning and retention: When excited or stressed, more glucose energy is released to fuel brain activity Amygdala (center for processing emotions) boosts activity in brain’s memory-forming areas. Flashbulb memory: we vividly remember details of extremely stressful situations

Amnesia No ability to form new memories No sense of elapsed time However, able to learn complex skills  with no awareness of learning IMPLICATION: Conscious recall may be relatively independent of unconscious learning

Implicit and explicit long-term memory Explicit Memory (declarative memory) memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage Left hippocampus processes verbal memory, right hippocampus processes visual and spatial memory Implicit Memory (procedural memory) memory of how to do something retention of information independent of conscious recollection Cerebellum processes implicit memory Infantile amnesia

Long-Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Implicit (procedural) Without conscious Facts-general knowledge Personally experienced events Skills-motor and cognitive Classical and operant conditioning effects

How do we process Information? Encoding Retrieval the processing of information into the memory system --extracting meaning The process of accessing information in the memory Storage the retention of encoded information over time-- short term or long term

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Recall – lay understanding of memory measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the blank test Recognition Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice test Relearning memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time

Memories are webs of associations

Retrieval Cues Priming Context effects Happens when an unconscious experience triggers an association of memory Memory without explicit remembering Context effects it helps you to put yourself back in the context where you experienced something. Deja Vu (French)--already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience

Experiment: Context effects 10 20 30 40 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Same contexts for hearing and recall Percentage of words recalled Greater recall when learning and testing contexts are the same

Moods and memories Mood-congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood Emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues When upset or depressed, individuals remember upsetting and depressing experiences When happy, individuals remember uplifting experiences

Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material Make material personally meaningful Use mnemonic devices associate with peg words--something already stored make up story chunk--acronyms

Improve Your Memory Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation