The drive/effort to do something Performance = Ability x Motivation The drive/effort to do something

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi [Ted Talk link] Flow Theory (enhanced focus and engagement in activities - work and outside of work) Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi [Ted Talk link] https://quotesgram.com/mihaly-csikszentmihalyi-quotes/

* Flow Balance between skills and challenge Individual differences Relationship between work and life flow experience

~ Self-Determination Theory~ Developing Self-Determination “Intrinsically motivated behavior is by definition self-determined. It is done freely for the inherent satisfaction associated with certain activities and with undertaking optimal challenge” (Deci & Ryan, 1987) Deci Ted Talk Link

* Motivation: SDT What/where are people’s motivational incentives? Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation The gains we make from the activity motivate us (e.g., money, power, prestige, endorsements) The activity itself is rewarding; you are interested, and enjoy doing it Controlled Motivation Take easiest path to goal, low well-being, short-term learning Autonomous Motivation Interest, enjoyment, health & well-being Intrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake Extrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence (e.g. a reward)

Increasing Internalization Increased feelings of competence (self efficacy), autonomy, and relatedness Increasing Internalization From: Ryan, R. and Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions Contemporary Educational Psychology 25, 54–67

Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (Ryan, 1982) Only scale that measures intrinsic motivation per se

* A Look at Rewards for Motivation Good jump ropers during recess were chosen and put in three conditions Following the intervention, which group will jump rope during recess more? Least Most Expected reward: Students were told if they did a good job, they would get a “good jumper” badge. All got a badge. Unexpected reward: Students were awarded a “good jumper” badge after doing a good job on the task. All got a badge. Control / No reward: Students jumped rope, but were not told of a reward, and were not given one. Unexpected and control/no reward jumped rope the most, with no statistical difference. Expected reward jumped rope significantly less. Reward undermined intrinsic value of the activity. Now don’t see a reason to jump rope unless they are “getting something out of it.” Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET): 2 aspects of rewards: Controlling – rewards used as an instrument to control behavior Informational – rewards provide information about competence

~ * Self-Determination Theory ~ Individuals who intrinsically enjoy their work Can lead to lowered intrinsic motivation (e.g., undermining effect) Increase extrinsic (external) rewards (e.g., pay) Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic (external) factors now partially account for why individuals are motivated to perform a given task External rewards limit people’s sense of self-determination Extrinsic Motivation Why? Intrinsic motivation Quality of work || Extrinsic motivation Quantity of work Lowered relationship between intrinsic motivation and performance when incentives directly tied to performance Tangible extrinsic rewards reliably undermine intrinsic motivation under most circumstances. The most detrimental reward contingency involves giving rewards as a direct function of people's performance. This is the one most often used in life, seems to be the one that is most detrimental to the motivation, performance, and well-being. http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/cont_reward.html

* Equity Theory Social comparison process where motivation is due to perceptions of inequity Person (forms a ratio of inputs to outcomes and compares this ratio to a comparison other) Comparison Other (can be a co-worker, yourself in the past, an ideal) Inputs (e.g., experience, effort, skill, education) Outcomes (e.g., $, benefits, flexibility, autonomy, responsibility, promotion)

* Equity Theory Example Overpayment (receiving greater outcomes to inputs compared to another) Underpayment (receiving less outcomes to inputs compared to another) Person: 50/75 Other: 50/50 Person: 50/50 Other: 50/75 Result: Hourly work (salaried position) Greater input (e.g., effort) to reduce perceive inequity regarding the quantity and quality of goods Piece rate: Greater input to produce better quality goods Result: Hourly work (salaried position) Less input (e.g., effort) to produce fewer and poorer quality of goods Piece rate: Greater input to produce more quantity of goods but with less quality

~ * Inequity Options ~ Behavioral Options to reduce perceived inequity: Change outcomes (e.g., ask for a raise) Get other to change their inputs to outcomes (e.g., slow down their rate of production 3) Find new work (e.g., quit the job, get a job transfer) Cognitive Options to reduce perceived inequity: 1) Distort one’s own inputs or outcomes (e.g., “I’m not really working that hard,” “I have a lot of free time”) Distort the inputs or outcomes of others (e.g., he/she gets more money than me but they have to live in Buffalo) 3) Change the comparison other

** Expectancy Theory (VIE Theory) Valences (Attractiveness of outcomes rated on a scale from -10 to +10. A valence is given to each job outcome) Instrumentality (Perceived relationship between performance and attained outcomes from 0 to 1.0. One instrumentality for each valence) Expectancy (Perceived relationship between effort and performance; 0 to 1.0. There is only one expectancy value) Rewards (Outcomes) Pay Work Conditions Benefits Autonomy Valences 9 6 7 3 .75 .50 .30 .10 Instrumentalities Motivation force = (V x I) + (V x I) + (V x I) + (V x I) x E

* Reinforcement Theory Stimulus Response Reinforcement Basic Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Interval (FI) e.g., reinforcement by the hour or week Fixed Ratio (FR) e.g., reinforce based on piece rate on the number of goods produced, behaviors performed Variable Interval (VI) e.g., reinforcement based on random passage of time Variable Ratio (VR) e.g., random (variable) reinforcement based on the number of goods produced, behaviors performed (such as gambling)

Knowledge of behaviors needed to achieve goals * Goal Setting Goal Awareness Goal Acceptability It is best for goals to be: Challenging/difficult (but attainable) Specific Important to attain Knowledge of behaviors needed to achieve goals Specific behaviors needed Progress to goal attainment Feedback

Basics of S.M.A.R.T. GOALS

* Reasons Why Goals Setting Works (Mechanisms) Directs actions of employees Aids in the development of strategies Energizes actions/behaviors Promotes persistence Possible Limitations: Competition Production of undesirable behaviors (e.g., unethical, not reporting goal-damaging behaviors) Focus on certain performance criteria (e.g., quantity vs. quality)

~ Some Goal Setting Issues ~ Role of goal acceptability and difficult goals (low expectancy goals; one’s where the probability for success is low) Satisfaction (easy goals) versus motivation (difficult goals) a) Use of moderately difficult goals b) Different points used for easy and difficult goals c) Make goals incrementally more difficult (accomplishing earlier, easier goals can lead to satisfaction)  Interaction of goal setting and feedback (One without the other does NOT work)

Goal Attainment (set higher future goals) * Self Regulation Theories Affects self-efficacy, control, and perceptions of mastery; allows for the regulation of behavior Perform Behavior Consistent With Goal? Yes Feedback Set Goal No Goal Not Attained Negative Positive Adjust strategies; change goal (e.g., lower, extend timeframe), less self-efficacy) High self-efficacy; persistence, increased control Successful? No Goal Attainment (set higher future goals) Yes

Self-Efficacy: Beliefs about one’s capabilities to produce a desired level of performance and to control events “Whether you think you can or you can’t, you’re usually right.” --- Henry Ford “If I have the belief that I can do it, I shall surely acquire the capacity to so it even if I may not have it at the beginning.” --- Mahatma Gandhi “A man who doubts himself is like a man who would enlist in the ranks of his enemies and bear arms against himself. He makes his failure certain by himself being the first person to be convinced of it.” --- Alexandre Dumas “Self confidence is the first requisite to great undertakings.” --- Samuel Johnson

Sample Self-Efficacy Items I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough I someone opposes me, I can find means and ways to get what I want. It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals. I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events. Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations. I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort. I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities. If I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions. If I am in trouble, I can usually think of something to do. No matter what comes my way, I’m usually able to handle it.

Perceived self-efficacy Feelings Bulk of motivation is due to our thoughts about what we can do, and the anticipation of the likely outcomes of our behaviors Perceived self-efficacy Thoughts Motivation Behavior Failure: Attributions, resilience, effort, and future goal levels

* Work Design Theory Job Characteristics Model Critical Psychological States Core Job Dimensions Personal & Work Outcomes Combine Tasks Put tasks into natural work units Customer contact Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance Meaningfulness of work High intrinsic work motivation High quality of work performance High satisfaction with work Low absenteeism and turnover Responsibility for work outcomes Autonomy Vertically load jobs Knowledge of work results Feedback Open feedback channels Employee Growth Need Strength Motivation Potential Score = (Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance) /3 x Autonomy x Feedback

Sample Questions From The Job Diagnostic Survey How much autonomy is there in your job? That is, to what extent does your job permit you to decide on your own how to go about doing the work? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very little; the job gives me almost no personal “say” about how and when the work is done Moderate autonomy; many things are standardized and not under my control, but I can make some decisions about the work Very much; the job gives me almost complete responsibility for deciding how and when the work is done How significant or important is your job? That is, are the results of your work likely to significantly affect the lives or well-being of other people? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very significant; the outcomes of my work are not likely to have important effects on other people Moderately significant Highly significant; the outcomes of my work can affect other people in very important ways To what extent do managers and co-workers tell you how well you are doing on your job? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very little; people almost never let me know how well I am doing Moderately; sometimes people may give me “feedback,” other times they may not Very much; managers or co-workers provide me with almost constant “feedback” about how well I’m doing